LUIS  CINCINATO  BOLLO 


SOUTH  AMERICA 

PAST  AND  PRESENT 

By  LUIS  CINCINATO  BOLLO 

Retired  Director  General  of  the  Civil  Registry  and  Bureau 
of  Demographical  Statistics  of  Uruguay.  ::  ::  ::  :: 
Author  of  Physical  Geography ;  Geography  of  America  ; 
Ideas  in  Zoology ;  Climatology  of  the  La  Plata  Region, 


Translated  from  Spanish 
By  NEMESIO   BAROS 


ILLUSTRATED  WITH«IX  MAPS 


NEW  YORK 

1919 


Copyright,  1919,  by 


IN-EMBSIO   BAROS 


SANTA  BARBARA 


CONTENTS 

FIRST  PART— SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST 

HiSTOBiCAL  Information  Regarding  Epoch-making  Events 
IN  South  America 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.    Region  of  the  La  Plata  River 1 

II.    Historical  Information  about  the  Central 

Andean  Region — Peru  and  Bolivia 66 

III.  Historical  Information  About  the  North 
Andean  Region — Venezuela,  Colombia  and 
Ecuador 72 


SECOND  PART— SOUTH  AMERICA  PRESENT 

IV.    Orography  and  General  Configuration  of 

South  America 81 

V.  The  Vast  Natural  Regions  of  South  America    90 

VI.    Hydrography 110 

VII.    Climatology  of  the  La  Plata  Region 113 

VIII.    The  Native  South  American 117 

IX.  Present  and  Fossil  Fauna  of  South  America  126 

X.    Demography 140 

XI.    Political  Organization  of  the  Various  South 

American  States 149 

XII.    Cities  of  South  America 159 

XIII.  Transportation    Rail    and    Water   Routes 

of  South  America  163 

XIV.  The  Meat-Producing  Region  of  South  Ameri- 

ca— the  La  Plata  Valley 173 

iii 


IV 

CHAPTER 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 


XVIII. 


CONTENTS 

PACE 

The  Cereal -Producing  Region  of  South 
America — the  Argentina 183 

The  Mineral-Producing  Region  of  South 
America — Chile,  Peru  and  Bolivia 186 

The  Tropical  Fruit-Producing  Region  of 
South  America — Brazil,  Ecuador,  Colom- 
bia, Venezuela  and  Paraguay 194 

Future  South  America  (Rod6) 213 

Statistics — Comparison  of  the  General  Com- 
merce OF  South  America;  Currency,  Weights 
and  Measures 218 


MAPS 

FACING 
PAGE 

South  America,  1777 26 

Relief  Map  of  North  America 82 

Relief  Map  of  South  America 83 

Physical  Map  of  South  America 90 

Political  Map  of  South  America 159 

Means  of  Communication  in  South  America — Rail- 
roads AND  Navigation  Lines 163 


FIRST  PART 
SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST 


CHAPTER  I 
REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER 

SUMMARY 

The  Aborigines — Peoples  of  the  Andes  and  the  Pampas — Submissive  Disposition  of 
the  Andeans — Haughty  and  Fighting  Spirit  of  the  Pampas — How  these  Peoples'  Institu- 
tions Contributed  to  the  Formation  of  this  Very  Marked  Contrast — Conquest  of  the 
Region  of  the  La  Plata  River — Condition  of  the  Indians  of  South  America  During  the 
Conquest — ^The  Jesuits — System  of  Jesuitical  Government — Social  Condition  of  the 
Indigenes  of  BoUvia — Spanish  Settlements  in  Uruguay — Disputes  Over  the  Oriental 
Territory  of  Uruguay  Between  Spaniards  and  Portuguese — Founding  of  the  Viceroyship 
of  the  Rio  de  La  Plata  in  1776 — Last  War  Between  Spain  and  Portugal  (1800)  for  the 
Oriental  Missions  of  Upper  Uruguay — Invasions  by  the  English  in  1806  and  1807 — Pop- 
ular Movements  Forerunners  of  the  South  American  Revolution  in  Caracas  in  1711  and 
1713,  Cochabamba  in  1730,  Asuncion  in  1731,  Quito,  Chuquisaca,  Montevideo  and 
Caracas  in  1809  and  Buenos  Aires  in  1810 — Artigas  Victor  in  the  First  Battle  of  the  La 
Plata  River  Against  the  Spaniards  at  Las  Piedras  in  1811 — The  Orien tales  Abandoned 
by  the  Buenos  Aires  Assembly,  Obliged  to  Combat  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese — 
Exodus  of  the  People  of  Eastern  Uruguay. 

The  Aborigines 

At  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus  in 
1492,  it  was  inhabited  by  many  millions  of  Indians  unevenly 
scattered  throughout  its  various  regions,  some  of  which  and 
among  them  what  are  now  known  as  Peru  and  Bolivia  com- 
pared in  density  of  population  with  some  of  the  European 
countries  of  the  same  period.  There  is  no 
Conteast  between        ^^ta  ou  which  to  base  au  account  of  the 

the  Peoples  of 

^^«^ndes  and  the  exact  number  of  Indians  inhabiting  these 
regions  at  the  time,  but  it  remains  an  undis- 
puted fact  that  Perti  and  Bolivia  had  a  number  of  cities 
with  a  dense  population  depending  principally  upon  agricul- 
ture, the  mining  industry  being  then  of  little  importance, 
due  to  the  lack  of  commercial  intercourse  with  the  outside 
world,  for  excepting  the  settlements  which  now  comprise 
Ecuador  and  Colombia,  they  were  all  inhabited  by  savages. 
The  Punas  Heladas  (bleak,  frozen  regions)  of  Bolivia, 
which  are  at  4,000  meters  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  had  been 

X 


2  SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

the  center  of  an  advanced  civilization  which  left  the  famous 
ruins  of  Tiahuanaco,  colossal  city  which  must  have  exceeded 
in  population  the  city  of  Cuzco,  the  capital  of  the  Empire 
of  the  Incas,  which  the  Spaniards  found  there  on  their 
arrival  in  Peru. 

The  founders  of  Tiahuanaco  were  not  the  miserable 
Aimaras  who  were  first  visited  by  the  Spanish  conquerors, 
but  a  banished  and  ignored  tribe  who  were  destroyed  or 
compelled  to  migrate  by  the  advance  of  a  more  barbarous 
and  warring  nation  from  the  land  to  the  south  which  is  now 
Argentina. 

The  whole  Tiahuanaco  race  may  have  disappeared  or 
been  obliged  to  abandon  its  native  haunts  through  some 
change  in  the  living  conditions  on  the  lofty  Bolivian  plateau, 
which  having  risen  higher  through  the  action  of  some  seismic 
disturbance  became  uninhabitable  for  man  and  his  progeny. 
For  were  it  not  for  the  vast  mineral  wealth  first  found  there 
by  the  Spaniards — principally  silver,  which  gave  more  than 
a  thousand  million  pesos,  from  the  Potosi  and  other  nearby 
regions — and  the  rich  deposits  of  lead,  copper,  tin,  etc., 
which  are  now  being  developed,  the  Puna,  that  bleak  and 
frozen  region,  would  now  be  completely  deserted.  This 
meseta  (plateau)  has  not  always  remained  at  its  present 
elevation,  which  fact  is  made  evident  by  the  soil  of  the 
pampas,  composed  mostly  of  sediment  such  as  is  deposited 
under  water  and  not  only  found  on  low,  level  ground  but  at 
more  than  one  thousand  meters  above  the  sea  on  the  sides  of 
the  Cordillera  Real  of  Bolivia,  which  slopes  as  far  as  the 
immense  desert-like  plain  called  El  Chaco. 

On  the  same  soil  of  the  pampas,  which  covers  the  Argen- 
tine plain,  and  which  is  to  be  found  at  more  than  one  thou- 
sand metres  elevation,  numerous  species  of  fossils  have  been 
discovered  corresponding  to  the  tiger,  the  predecessor  of 
the  elephant,  ape,  megatheriums,  etc.  No  better  proof  than 
this  need  be  asked  to  substantiate  the  fact  that  the  Bolivian 
plateau  has  risen  considerably  higher  than  its  original  eleva- 
tion above  sea  level. 


KEGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  3 

These  changes  have  occurred  quite  frequently  in  South 
American  regions  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  as  is 
the  case  in  the  desert  of  Sahara  in  the  African  continent, 
where  at  one  time  abundant  streams  drained  its  vast 
domains  and  luxuriant  vegetation  and  domestic  animals  of 
all  kinds  were  to  be  found ;  these  included  the  ox,  a  likeness 
of  which  has  been  found  hewn  in  the  rocks,  no  doubt  carved 
there  by  the  unknown  settler  of  that  unrecorded  epoch. 

The  upheaval  of  the  Alps  mountains  to  beyond  a  certain 
height  intercepted  the  northerly  rain-laden  winds,  thereby 
making  a  barren,  arid  desert  where  once  vegetation 
abounded  and  beautiful  rivers  flowed. 

The  tablelands  of  Patagonia — a  desolate  arid  region  from 
the  Andes  to  the  Atlantic,  which  Darwin  termed  "Accursed 
Land" — possess  fossil  fauna  of  mammals  similar  to  that  of 
the  pampas,  a  fauna  so  rich  in  species  and  variety  of  form 
(more  than  1,500  of  the  5,000  known  throughout  the  world) 
that  make  this  the  biggest  fossil  graveyard  of  the  world. 

You  may  find  there  all  the  species  of  fossils,  from  the 
predecessor  of  the  horse  to  that  of  the  ape,  which  bears  closer 
physical  resemblance  to  man,  not  excluding  the  anthropo- 
morphus  of  Asia  and  Africa,  the  gliptodon  which  furnished 
Darwin  with  material  proof  for  the  elucidation  of  the  meta- 
morphosis, for  it  was  this  gigantic  gliptodon  which  proved 
to  be  the  predecessor  of  the  "mulita"  of  the  pampas.  The 
fossil  species  of  La  Pampa  and  Patagonia  will  be  dealt  with 
in  another  part  of  the  book. 

These  huge  creatures,  like  the  megatherium,  the  primitive 
horse  and  other  herbivorous  animals,  had  to  have  an  over- 
abundance of  food.  The  gigantic  forests  where  they  wan- 
dered at  will,  stand  today  petrified  mute  witnesses  attesting 
to  the  history  of  the  region. 

The  change  in  the  elevation  of  the  Andean  range  in  rising 
to  a  height  that  impeded  the  eastbound  course  of  clouds  from 
the  Pacific,  which  produced  rain  to  feed  this  flora,  gradually 
caused  its  disappearance  as  well  as  that  of  the  animals. 
Evidences  of  this  upheaval  are  found  at  Mendoza  in  the 


4  SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

pampa  soil  which  formed  the  prairie  now  at  1,000  metres 
above  sea  level.  The  changes  of  La  Patagonia  are  identical 
to  those  of  the  Bolivian  plateau. 

The  theory  that  the  American  Indians  are  descendants  of 
the  Mongolians  and  that  the  famous  plateau  of  Pamir  may 
have  been  the  cradle  of  humanity,  can  not  now  be  accepted. 
The  paleontological  records  show  that  the  new  world  of  the 
Spaniards  is  older  than  that  which  was  believed  to  have 
been  the  primitive  home  of  man. 

The  race  which  inhabited  the  Andean  region  at  Cuenca 
on  the  borders  of  Lake  Titicaca,  had  reached  a  high  state 
of  civilization,  as  is  verified  by  the  Templo  del  Sol  (Temple 
of  the  Sun),  the  palaces  and  tombs  of  the  Incas,  the  high- 
ways, the  aqueducts  and  various  other  improvements,  prod- 
uct of  engineering  skill.  Politically,  this  nation  was  not 
as  far  advanced  as  others  which  were  considered  barbarians, 
among  them  the  Charruas,  Arancanos  and  the  tribes  of  the 
pampas,  all  of  which  constituted  several  true  republics 
where  all  governmental  functions  were  directed  by  parlia- 
ments or  assemblies  and  where  the  executive  was  openly 
elected  by  the  male  members  of  the  tribe.  Every  Indian  was 
endowed  with  individual  sovereign  privileges  to  freely  elect 
his  governing  chief,  whom  he  obeyed  strictly  in  all  that 
obedience  was  due. 

The  Quichuas  and  Aimar^s  were  organized  under  govern- 
ments similar  to  that  under  the  then  reigning  kings  of  the 
Orient  and  of  Egypt,  whose  subjects  blindly  obeyed  every 
wish  of  a  potentate  whom  they  had  not  elected  to  power,  but 
who  had  by  divine  inheritance  received  the  authority  to 
govern. 

This  socialistic  system,  wherein  the  state  not  only  gov- 
erned but  also  interfered  in  every  act  of  the  life  of  the  indi- 
vidual, from  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  to  even  the  most 
harmless  diversions,  and  where  the  police  vigilance  had 
reached  the  stage  where  every  ten  individuals  were  watched 
by  a  sort  of  deputy  who  became  responsible  for  the  short- 
comings of  others  and  such  as  he  himself  could  not  have 


REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  5 

possibly  prevented,  had  broken  up  the  spirit  of  individual 
initiative  and  spontaneity  and  caused  the  people  to  become 
accustomed  to  entirely  depend  upon  and  expect  everything 
from  the  government. 

The  absolute  and  complete  submission  of  the  Indians  to 
the  self-constituted  authorities,  together  with  the  want  of 
initiative  which  is  the  main  characteristic  of  the  Andean 
Indian,  was  in  direct  contrast  to  the  aggressiveness  of  the 
Pampas,  Araucanos,  Charruas  and  Guaranles. 

The  Spaniards  with  a  handful  of  men  subdued  powerful 
nations  of  millions  of  inhabitants,  by  merely  mastering  the 
Incas.  Pizarro  with  only  180  soldiers  of  infantry  and  thirty- 
seven  of  cavalry  started  from  Panama  in  1531  to  conquer 
Peru,  which  was  then  in  itself  a  powerful  empire  of  severaT 
million  population,  and  accomplished  his  mission,  while 
Don  Pedro  de  Mendoza  with  more  than  one  thousand  men 
founded  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires  in  1535  and  had  to  abandon 
it  on  the  following  year,  after  losing  half  of  his  men  on 
being  attacked  by  the  Querandies  and  Charrtias. 

The  Charriias  occupied  what  is  now  Reptiblica  Oriental  del 
Uruguay  and  crossed  the  river  to  assist  in  the  expulsion  of 
the  invaders.  The  Spaniards,  on  being  driven  from  the  land 
which  they  had  temporarily  taken  possession  of  and  on  which 
site  is  now  situated  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires,  planned  to 
reoccupy  it,  and  returned  later  with  additional  reinforce- 
ments under  the  command  of  Garay,  and  again  founded  the 
city  whose  inhabitants  were  constantly  engaged  in  defend- 
ing themselves  from  continuous  assaults. 

Soils,  the  discoverer  of  the  La  Plata  River,  on  attempting 
to  take  possession  of  the  territory  which  is  now  Republic 
of  Uruguay,  was  killed,  together  with  some  of  his  compan- 
ions, by  the  Charruas,  who  very  heroically'  defended  their 
domains. 

The  Spaniards  later  planned  to  found  a  settlement  near 
the  site  where  Soils  died,  but  the  Charruas  burned  down  the 
Spanish  fortress  and  drove  the  Spaniards  out  of  the  country. 

In  1600,  Hernandarias  de  Saavedra,  Governor  of  Para- 


6  SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

guay,  thought  that  the  time  had  come  to  exterminate  the 
Charrfias,  and  so,  at  the  head  of  600  Spaniards,  undertook 
the  journey  to  Uruguay,  where  he  arrived  after  a  strenuous 
four  months'  campaign.  The  Charrtias  engaged  him  in  bat- 
tle on  the  banks  of  the  Uruguay  and  the  Spaniards  were  so 
decisively  defeated  that  only  their  leader  escaped,  according 
to  the  Spanish  writer  Centenera  in  his  book  "La  Argentina." 

This  disaster  caused  Hernandarias  to  petition  the  king  of 
Spain,  Felipe  II,  stating  that  it  was  impossible  to  subdue 
the  Charruas  by  force  of  arms  and  that  the  missionaries 
must  be  resorted  to,  which  proposal  was  accepted  by  the 
king,  who  sent  the  first  missionaries  to  the  La  Plata  River. 

In  subsequent  encounters  with  the  Spaniards  from  time 
to  time,  the  Indians,  now  victors,  now  vanquished,  yet  never 
slaves,  came  into  the  possession  of  horses  which  had  been 
introduced  by  the  Spaniards  and  became  invincible  warriors. 

The  Querandles  and  other  tribes  which  were  never  van- 
quished first  fought  against  the  Spaniards,  and  later  met 
the  Argentinos  in  fierce  encounters  in  the  vicinity  of  Buenos 
Aires  until  1879,  when  the  conquest  of  the  desert  was  finally 
accomplished. 

The  Guaranies  of  Paraguay  proved  no  less  fearless  adver- 
saries in  the  defense  of  their  native  country  against  the 
Spaniards  who  founded  Asunci6n,  but  instead  of  resorting 
to  force  the  subjection  of  this  tribe  was  at  last  effected  by 
the  Catholic  missionaries. 

The  aggressive  character  of  the  people  of  the  southernmost 
regions  of  South  America  was  fully  demonstrated  by  their 
initiative  in  the  war  of  independence  against  Spain,  for  it 
was  the  Gauchos  of  the  La  Plata  River,  descendants  of  the 
Indians,  who  were  the  first  to  take  up  arms  to  fight  for  their 
independence.  They  were  the  liberators  of  Bolivia  and 
Peru,  and  would  have  gone  to  Colombia  and  Venezuela  if 
Bolivar's  men  of  the  plains  and  those  of  his  generals,  Paez 
and  Piar,  descendants  of  the  Guaranian  race,  had  not  ven- 
tured upon  a  like  undertaking.  Nevertheless,  the  indepen- 
dence of  Peru  and  Bolivia  would  not  have  been  secured  with- 


REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  7 

out  the  assistance  rendered  by  the  Gauchos  of  La  Plata, 
descendants  of  the  Pampas,  Charrtias  and  Guaranles,  all 
settlers  of  the  plains. 

Conquest  of  the  La  Plata  Region 

Once  the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus  became  a 
realization,  Spain  and  Portugal  lent  material  assistance  to 
the  undertakings  which  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  South 
America  as  a  whole,  followed  by  its  conquest  and  its  divis- 
ion in  almost  equal  parts  between  the  two. 

One  of  the  exploring  expeditions,  under  the  command  of 
Juan  Diaz  de  Soils,  arrived  in  1516  at  the  mouth  of  a  great 
river,  or  more  properly  speaking,  the  great  estuary  which  he 
called  Mar  Dulce  (Fresh  Sea),  as  he  admired  its  immensity. 
This  name  was  later  changed  to  Rio  de  La  Plata.  Soils  was 
killed  by  the  Charruas  on  descending  to  the  east  side  of  the 
river. 

Following  the  same  route  that  Soils  had  traveled,  Her- 
nando Magallanes,  Portuguese,  in  the  service  of  Spain, 
arrived  at  Mar  Dulce  in  1520,  and,  as  one  of  the  members 
of  his  crew  beheld  the  hill  which  rises  opposite  the  capital 
of  the  state  of  Uruguay,  exclaimed  "Monte-vi-eu"  (Mount 
saw  I),  which  was  later  corrupted  into  Montevideo. 

Sebastian  Cabot,  who  had  been  in  the  service  of  England 
and  who  discovered  part  of  the  North  Atlantic  coast,  came 
afterwards  to  take  possession  of  the  land  and  govern  it  in 
the  name  of  the  sovereigns  of  Spain.  After  reaching  the  La 
Plata  River,  Cabot  discovered  the  great  river  Parand, 
ascending  it  to  its  affluent,  the  Bermejo,  where  he  received 
from  the  indigenes  several  pieces  of  silver,  which  had  prob- 
ably come  from  Bolivia.  On  his  return  to  Spain,  Cabot 
presented  the  pieces  of  silver  to  the  court,  and  the  opinion 
was  that  this  metal  was  very  abundant  in  the  region  drained 
by  the  river  discovered  by  Soils,  and  so  the  name  of  Mar 
Dulce  was  changed  to  the  less  appropriate  one  of  Rio  de 
la  Plata. 

At  a  later  period,  in  1535,  came  Don  Pedro  de  Mendoza 


8     SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

with  more  than  one  thousand  men  to  substitute  Cabot  and 
founded  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires.  The  city  was  attacked  by 
the  Indians,  who  compelled  the  Spaniards  to  retire  shortly 
afterwards  to  the  fort  of  Sancti  Spiritus,  founded  by  Cabot 
on  the  Parand. 

Mendoza  was  succeeded  by  his  lieutenant,  Ayolas,  the 
founder  of  the  city  of  Asuncion  on  the  river  Paraguay. 
Not  long  after  Ayolas  was  killed  by  the  Indians,  and  in  his 
place  the  settlers  of  Paraguay  elected  Domingo  Martinez 
de  Yrala  provisional  governor. 

Paraguay,  which  comprised  all  the  region  drained  by  the 
rivers  La  Plata,  Parang  and  Uruguay,  and  the  capital  of 
which  was  Asunci6n,  was  the  first  center  of  civilization  in 
the  discovered  regions.  Yrala  was  succeeded  by  Alvar 
NtiSez  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  who  in  turn  was  replaced  by  Ortiz  de 
Zdrate,  the  predecessor  of  Don  Juan  de  Garay,  who  again 
founded  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires  in  1580.  Hernando  Arias  de 
Saavedra,  who  was  afterwards  elected  Governor  by  the  set- 
tlers and  his  election  confirmed  by  the  Crown,  was  the  last 
of  the  conquerors  of  the  La  Plata,  a  native  of  Asuncion. 

In  1617  the  vast  territory  of  which  Asuncion  was  the 
capital  city  was  divided  into  two  parts:  Paraguay  on  the 
north,  and  what  was  termed  Province  of  Buenos  Aires  on  the 
south,  which  comprised  Buenos  Aires  and  the  adjacent 
territory  lying  between  the  rivers  Paran4  and  Uruguay,  also 
the  lands  to  the  east  of  Uruguay  to  the  Atlantic,  called 
Banda  Oriental  (Eastern  Bank),  inhabited  by  such  fierce 
tribes  as  the  Charruas,  Yaros  and  Minuanos. 

The  latter  was  a  specially  important  region  for  the  reason 
that  the  livestock  which  had  been  abandoned  by  the  Span- 
iards years  before  had  rapidly  multiplied.  On  the  other 
hand,  Paraguay  was  far  richer  in  food  vegetable  products 
than  what  the  Guaranies,  a  less  combative  tribe,  had  to 
offer  to  the  conquerors. 

This  abundance  of  livestock  prompted  the  Spaniards  to 
colonize  the  Banda  Oriental.  The  first  settlement,  known 
as  Santo  Domingo  de  Soriano,  was  founded  in  1624  on  the 


REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  9 

river  Negro,  a  big  inland  stream,  and  at  a  point  not  far  from 
the  river  Uruguay  in  one  of  the  most  fertile  regions  and 
where  livestock  thrived  best.  The  settlement  of  San  Sal- 
vador, which  had  been  founded  there  previously,  had  to  be 
abandoned,  due  to  attacks  by  the  Indians. 

Condition  of  the  Indians  of  South  America  During  the 

Conquest 

Before  the  establishment  of  missions  the  Indian  subjects 

were  distributed  among  the  Spanish  leaders,  and  formed 

what   were  known   as  E^icomiendas,   com- 

Reducciones  (Set-  -,      n  -r     -,•  e  -,     ±^\  i  j- 

tiements  of  con-  posed  of  ludiaus  of  both  sexes  employed  in 

different  kinds  of  work  for  the  exclusive 
profit  of  their  masters.  According  to  regulation  these 
Indians  could  not  be  sold,  neither  could  they  be  mistreated 
nor  driven  out  on  account  of  illness  or  old  age.  Thus  did 
Yrala  organize  the  first  Reducciones  of  the  Indians  taken 
prisoners.  Whenever  they  submitted  voluntarily  they  were 
gathered  together  in  villages,  with  their  chief  at  the  head 
under  the  denomination  Encomienda  Mitayo,  which  was 
awarded  as  a  prize  to  the  chief. 

These  groups  were  not  as  much  sought  as  those  known  as 
Yanacones,  as  only  two  months  work  from  each  man  per  year 
was  allowed  for  the  benefit  of  the  Spaniards,  and,  besides, 
under  the  same  arrangement,  the  women,  children  and  chiefs 
were  exempt  from  all  work. 

Through  repeated  complaints,  which  the  Auditor  of  Char- 
cas  investigated  in  1612  previous  to  action  upon  them,  all 
personal  work  was  abolished  and  recommendation  made 
that  the  new  settlements  be  left  to  the  Jesuits. 

The  Jesuits  who  had  been  summoned  in  1609  established 
themselves  at  La  Guaira,  opposite  the  famous  cascades  which 
are  formed  by  the  Parand,  and  founded  the  Reducci6n  of 
Loreto  and  others,  which,  after  attacks  by  the  Mamelucos 
of  San  Paulo,  were  transferred  to  the  site  of  the  present  day 
missions  comprising  the  territory  between  the  upper  Parand 


10         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

and  the  upper  Uruguay  at  the  bend  where  the  former  turns 
eastwardly.  This  took  place  in  1631,  when  the  Reducciones 
of  Corpus,  San  Ignacio,  etc.,  were  founded  and  which  con- 
stituted the  Western  Missions,  now  the  mission  territory  in 
Argentina. 

Each  villa  or  tribe  was  entrusted  to  two  Jesuits,  who 
were  absolute  owners  of  all  the  property  and  who  disposed 
of  everything  at  will.  There  was  a  Municipal  Council  in 
each  settlement,  but  nominally  only,  as  the  Jesuits  were  the 
masters.  All  the  work  of  cultivation,  construction  and 
lesser  industries  performed  by  the  Indians  was  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  Order  of  Jesuits,  which  fed  them,  clothed  them 
and  furnished  them  with  all  the  necessaries  of  a  simple  life. 

Azara,  the  celebrated  Spanish  sage,  who  planned  the 
boundaries  between  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  possessions, 
in  speaking  of  the  Missions,  gave  accurate  information 
regarding  these  settlements. 

All  Indians  between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and  fifty  years 
paid  annually  one  peso  per  head  to  the  Royal  Treasury,  and 
in  addition,  each  tribe  had  to  contribute  600  pesos. 

In  order  to  isolate  their  settlements  from  commercial 
intercourse  with  all  other  peoples,  the  Jesuits  separated 
each  tribe  by  deep  pits  and  stockades  and  built  big  gates, 
under  guards,  at  points  on  the  roads  leading  to  and  from 
the  settlement,  allowing  no  one  to  enter  or  leave  without  a 
written  order.  They  permitted  horseback  riding  only  to 
those  of  the  Indians  who  looked  after  the  livestock.  The 
Jesuits  had  provided  themselves  with  cannon  and  equip- 
ment and  built  adequate  fortifications. 

When  the  Jesuits  refused  admittance  not  only  to  the 
Indians  and  the  Spanish  authorities,  but  to  the  priests  as 
well,  it  was  the  impression  that  they  intended  the  organiza- 
tion of  a  Jesuitical  empire.  Azara  says :  "The  dances  which 
the  Jesuits  introduced  among  their  tribes  consisted  largely 
of  instruction  in  fencing  and  the  use  of  the  sword,  as  I  have 
myself  seen.    The  women  were  never  allowed  to  dance." 

The  Jesuits  were  English,  Italian  and  German,  and  the 


REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  11 

few  Spanish  among  them  had  neither  office  nor  authority. 
The  Spanish  Government  limited  itself  to  telling  the  Jesuits, 
after  a  century  and  a  half,  that  it  was  time  to  grant  some 
liberty  to  the  Indians  by  permitting  them  to  have  self- 
governing  powers,  the  right  to  trade  and  transact  business 
with  the  Spaniards,  and  in  fact,  that  they  should  be  extri- 
cated from  the  confinement  in  which  they  were  kept  like  so 
many  rabbits  in  a  warren. 

The  Jesuits  stated  that  the  Indians  were  not  capable  of 
governing  themselves  and  promised  to  gradually  reestablish 
private  property,  which  in  fact  did  not  exist,  as  everything 
belonged  to  the  Order.  Each  family  was  assigned  a  small 
piece  of  ground  for  cultivation  two  days  out  of  each  week 
for  their  own  benefit.  But  inasmuch  as  the  Indians  could 
not  sell  their  produce  the  arrangement  was  of  no  advantage 
to  them  for  the  reason  that  the  Order  paid  for  their  products 
just  what  it  saw  fit.  In  the  end,  according  to  the  Indians, 
the  Jesuits  disposed  of  the  products  of  these  properties 
together  with  their  own. 

"It  is  beyond  all  doubt,"  says  Azara,  "that  the  Jesuits 
governed  these  tribes  arbitrarily,  they  themselves  not  being 
responsible  to  any  one,  and  disposed  of  the  properties  of 
the  different  settlements  and  the  individual  work  of  the 
Indians  just  as  freely  as  was  done  by  the  Indian  chiefs 
who  succeeded  them,  though  the  Jesuits  were  more  consid- 
erate, only  requiring  them  to  work  half  of  the  day,  amused 
them  with  dancing,  festivals  and  tournaments  and  supplied 
them  with  sufficient  food  and  clothing.  All  needlework  was 
assigned  to  the  musicians,  sextons  and  choir  boys,  as  the 
women  attended  only  to  the  knitting  of  the  cotton." 

Manufactures  by  the  Indians  of  fabrics,  cotton  and  to- 
bacco, as  well  as  mate  (Brazilian  holly),  vegetables  and 
medicinal  herbs,  were  transported  to  other  cities  and  there 
sold  in  order  to  bring  other  articles  back.  The  churches, 
which  were  sumptuously  adorned,  consumed  a  large  portion 
of  the  income. 

A  decree  calling  for  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from 


12         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

their  domains  was  issued  on  February  27,  1767,  by  Carlos 
III,  but  the  mandate  was  not  complied  with  until  the  follow- 
ing year  for  fear  of  an  uprising.  The  Indians  did  not  want 
to  obey  the  Spanish  civilian  authorities  who  were  in  con- 
flict with  the  clergy,  and  in  all  disputes  upheld  the.  latter. 
These  disputes  brought  about  the  downfall  of  the  missions 
and  caused  the  scattering  of  the  Indians  throughout  the 
forests,  finally  reducing  their  number  from  144,000  in  1767 
to  only  45,000  in  1804. 

Were  the  Jesuits  good  colonizers  and  did  they  prove  good 
sponsors  of  civilization?  I  say.  No.  To  civilize  does  not 
mean  merely  to  feed  and  clothe  and  impart  an  appearance 
of  culture,  but  it  means  enlightenment  as  to  the  duties  and 
privileges  that  all  free  men  have  in  order  to  stabilize  society 
so  that  civil  equality  may  make  of  each  man  a  social  entity 
capable  of  successfully  contributing  to  the  solidarity  of  a 
nation. 

The  Jesuits  could  have  accomplished  this  after  one  and 
a  half  centuries  of  rule,  but  they  failed,  as  is  proven  by  the 
fact  that  on  their  disappearance  all  else  went  with  them 
and  only  the  ruins  of  the  temples  remained.  They  did  not  con- 
struct, for  after  one  and  a  half  centuries — according  to  them- 
selves— the  Indians  were  not  capable  of  self-government. 

"To  deprive  a  people  from  practicing  self-government 
because  of  incapability,"  says  Macaulay,  "is  as  irrational 
as  it  is  to  refuse  to  operate  for  cataract  on  the  eye  of  a 
patient  for  the  reason  that  he  will  not  be  able  to  at  first 
see  the  objects  before  him,  the  retina  not  being  used  to  the 
light,  but  which  faculty  can  be  acquired  after  training  the 
eye  as  to  distance  by  the  necessary  reaction  on  the  optic 
nerve." 

The  same  thing  is  true  of  the  Paraguayan  Indians  of  the 
time  of  Francia  and  L6pez,  who  after  forty  years  of  domina- 
tion had  not  organized  even  one  tribe  capable  of  self-govern- 
ment, but  who  governed  by  tyranny,  notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  this  tribe  by  its  material  progress  bore  evidence  of 
a  modern  race. 


"    REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  13 

The  Argentinian,  Agustin  Alvarez,  says  in  one  of  his 
well-known  works :  "The  races  of  mankind  are  not  improved 
by  their  ethnical  but  by  their  mental  transformation,  for 
the  ability  to  succeed  does  not  take  root  in  the  skin  or  the 
bony  framework  of  man ;  neither  is  man's  value  based,  as 
is  that  of  the  ox,  on  the  load  that  it  pulls,  value  of  its  hide, 
tissue,  fat  and  bone.  Improvement  in  the  breeding  of  live- 
stock is  merely  physical,  but  the  development  of  the  human 
race  must  be  accomplished  through  the  spirit." 

To  quote  Horace  Mann :  "The  opinion  of  the  most  com- 
petent, most  tranquil,  most  experienced  instructors  of  the 
young,  is,  that  we  can  within  two  or  three  generations 
through  our  school  system  and  without  undue  sacrifice  have 
this  beautiful  dream  come  true  (he  referred  to  the  reforma- 
tion of  corrupted  humanity)  and  see  the  best  wishes  of  all 
philanthropists  fulfilled.  The  value  of  the  school  is  insuper- 
able. It  will  before  long,  before  the  lapse  of  centuries,  yes, 
within  two  or  three  generations, bring  about  the  modification 
of  the  races.  There  are  neither  young  nor  old  nations, 
neither  are  there  superior  nor  inferior  nations."  And 
neither  are  the  Latin  people  inferior  to  the  Germans, 
as  these  latter  in  their  delirium  had  come  to  believe,  nor  are 
the  Latin  races  inferior  to  the  Anglo-Saxon,  or  these  to  the 
Latin,  whose  highly  developed  culture  has  at  times  charmed 
and  dazzled  them,  as  is  demonstrated  by  history  in  the 
alternating  predominance  of  first  one  nation  and  then 
another. 

Predominance  comes  during  an  historical  period  to  the 
most  highly  intellectual,  the  most  industrious  and  the  most 
perseverant  nation  of  that  particular  period.  Japan,  next 
to  China,  is  the  oldest  civilized  nation  in  the  world,  but 
having  adopted  the  educational  system  of  the  Occidentals,  it 
is  to-day  a  young  nation  in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  and  its 
intellectual  men  are  among  the  most  renowned  in  medicine 
and  other  sciences.  The  Americans  have  demonstrated  the 
truth  of  the  assertion  by  Horace  Mann,  by  transforming,  in 
less  than  a  quarter  of  a  century,  the  mental  development  of 


14  SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

the  Filipinos  raised  and  educated  under  the   antiquated 
political  rule  of  Spain. 

Social  Condition  of  the  Indians  Under  Spanish 
Domination 

"No  more  miserable  and  humiliating  condition  of  humanity 
can  be  pictured  than  was  that  of  the  Indians  at  work  in  the 
fields.  One  of  the  iniquitous  laws  of  the  colonies,  the  per- 
sonal tribute  of  the  Mitas  (enforced  service  of  Indians) 
remained  in  force  after  independence  till  1857.  From 
each  settlement  a  certain  number  of  indigenes  was  recruited 
annually  to  contribute  during  the  year  to  the  work 
in  the  mines,  on  the  farms  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  or 
the  raising  of  livestock,  and  in  the  shops  where  the  tocuyo 
(shirting)  fabrics  were  designed.  The  Indians  thus  forced 
to  serve  were  called  Conciertos." 

"Whoever  consults  the  Noticias  Secretas  (secret  notes)  of 
Jorje  Juan  and  Antonio  de  Ulloa,  wherein  the  system  of  Mitas 
is  portrayed  as  it  was  carried  on  during  the  latter  period  of 
the  Colonies,  and  how  without  any  material  difference  it 
existed  until  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  can  feel 
that  deep  melancholia  emanating  from  a  clear  vision  of  the 
abyss  of  human  wickedness.  Obstinate  Indians  were 
dragged  to  the  shops'  prison  by  tying  their  hair  to  the  tail  of 
the  rider's  horse.  Only  one  of  every  ten  of  those  thus  forced 
to  slavery  ever  returned  alive." 

"In  order  to  still  further  torment  the  Mitayo  (Indian 
subject  to  Mitas)  and  humble  his  last  remaining  particle  of 
self-esteem  they  would  further  punish  him  by  cutting  his 
hair  to  the  roots,  which  punishment  was  to  him  the  worst 
of  ignominy.  All  this  painful  discipline  has  created  in  the 
heart  of  the  Indian  not  only  the  habit  but  the  necessity  of 
suffering.  Whenever  treated  kindly  he  appears  nonplussed 
and  believes  that  he  is  being  deceived.  On  the  other  hand, 
he  becomes  accustomed  to  the  harshest  tyranny,  with  the 
half-harrowing,  half-repugnant  meekness  of  a  much  abused 


REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  15 

and  despised  canine,  and  as  is  often  the  case  with  the  com- 
mon watchdog  that  feels  neglected  and  leaves  home  after  a 
prolonged  lapse  of  time  between  whippings." 

"At  the  time  of  the  abolition  of  the  unjust  personal  trib- 
ute exacted  under  the  rule  of  Robles,  many  were  the  Indians 
that  became  frightened  at  the  new  order  of  things  and  acted 
as  if  a  revered  tradition  was  being  violated  and  became 
homesick  for  the  old  slavery  days.  Away  from  the  spur 
and  influence  of  chastisement  the  Indian  is  indolent  and 
weak.  No  promise  can  be  made  that  he  will  believe  nor 
reward  big  enough  to  stimulate  him.  It  is  not  within  the 
scope  of  his  understanding  that  labor  is  ennobling  and 
should  be  voluntary.  He  has  neither  love  of  freedom  nor 
idea  of  rights." 

"The  emancipation  movement  as  regards  Spain  at  the 
time  of  the  liberal  yet  unfortunate  uj)rising  of  1809,  also 
the  ephemeral  declaration  of  independence  two  years  later, 
and  finally  the  adhesion  to  the  triumphal  impulse  of  Boli- 
var's hosts,  were  the  achievement  of  the  few  settled  and 
cultured  Creoles  in  whom  the  inspiration  to  be  free  was 
uppermost  and  ranked  above  all  else.  The  idea  of  mother 
country  and  patriotic  passion  for  same  were  conceived  at 
the  hidalgos  (public  meeting  houses)  of  the  cities  where  the 
traditional  rivalry  between  'chapetones'  (imported  Span- 
iards) and  Creoles  was  self-evident." 

"The  motley  crowd  of  indigenes  remained  untouched  by 
the  idea  and  the  love,  even  though  it  be  sent  forth  as  a 
horde  or  an  army,  its  share  of  unredeemable  blood  to  pay. 
Plebeian  liberty  did  not  obtain  in  them  that  heroic  and 
genial  incarnation  which  evolved  into  sculptural  align- 
ments within  the  breast  of  the  Gauchos  of  the  La  Plata  and 
within  the  plainsman  of  other  parts  of  Colombia  and  in 
Venezuela.  Even  long  after  the  revolution  it  often  hap- 
pened that  the  Ganan  Indian  of  the  haciendas,  ignoring 
the  existence  of  the  nation,  believed  that  the  mita  to  which 
he  was  subject  was  imposed  yet  in  the  king's  name." 

"The  revolution  not  inspired  by  the  Indian  was  even  less 


16         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

of  a  reality  to  him.  The  change  in  his  condition  was  neg- 
ligible. Within  the  republic  the  Indian  continued  to 
acquiesce  as  the  conquered  race,  the  wretched  clay  upon 
which  the  social  edifice  is  planted.  The  mestizo  aims  to 
deny  his  half  of  indigenous  blood  and  endeavors  to  attest 
by  his  filial  wickedness  the  purity  of  his  lineage.  The  Indian 
clergyman  with  difficulty  reaches  the  benefice.  The  uni- 
versity is  a  step-mother  to  him  of  humble  birth.  The 
plebeian  Indian,  like  the  horse  changed  from  master  to 
master,  sees  his  state  as  a  helot  confirmed.  He  is  mis- 
treated and  annoyed  by  the  slovenly  grouch  of  the  streets. 
When  the  Negro  slave  finds  his  task  growing  burdensome 
he  turns  to  the  Indian  transient  and  compels  him  to  do  his 
work  for  him." 

"Cruelty  that  has  perhaps  been  lessened  by  the  law  is 
kept  alive  through  habit.  The  rapacious  claw  of  the  'Cor- 
regidor)  (corrector — magistrate)  passed  as  had  the  vintage 
of  blood  of  the  'Encomendero'  (agent),  but  the  whip  for 
the  Indian  remains  clutched  in  the  right  hand  of  the  boss 
of  the  hacienda,  the  head  man  in  the  shop,  the  local  doctrine 
leader,  the  uncivil  and  domineering  curate,  who  also 
assumes  executionership.  His  tyrants  have  trained  him 
upon  being  lashed  to  rise  and  kiss  the  hand  of  the  whipper 
and  to  say,  'Dios  se  lo  pague'  (May  God  reward  you),  and 
if  it  be  the  hand  of  the  black  slave  that  has  mercilessly 
come  down  on  his  back,  whether  on  his  master's  account  or 
the  slave's  own  hatred  and  iniquity,  the  Indian,  the  wretched 
Indian  of  South  America,  kisses  the  hand  of  the  slave.  So 
continues  he  in  a  darkened  night,  in  the  shadows  of  which  the 
spirit  casts  not  even  a  ray  of  enthusiasm,  or  of  eagerness, 
nor  even  of  idle  curiosity.  The  unfulfilled  promise,  the  lie, 
sordid  fruits  of  weakness  and  fear,  form  the  timid  defense 
with  which  he  endeavors  to  repress  the  march  to  martyr- 
dom's excesses.  Smiles  of  heavenly  hope  he  sees  not,  as  he 
knows  not  their  radiancy,  and  the  religion  which  taught 
him  is  to  him  nothing  more  than  an  unctionless  monotone. 
Death  to  him  means  neither  joy  nor  sorrow.     Only  the 


EEGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  EIVER  17 

ephemeral  exaltation  of  inebriety  brings  forth  from  the 
depths  of  his  slavery-bewitched  soul,  benumbed-like  hob- 
goblins of  daring  and  bravery,  passionate  phantoms  display- 
ing in  the  lightning  rays  of  madness,  the  idol  of  vengeance." 

"The  air  of  nobility,  emanating  from  illustrious  birth  or 
from  the  superiority  of  the  profession,  was  maintained  in 
all  the  purity  of  Spanish  tradition,  either  through  the  pre- 
eminence of  the  families'  descendants,  of  founders  of  cities 
and  the  dignitaries  of  the  Colony,  or  the  aristocratic  aureola 
of  the  clergy,  or  the  army  or  the  academic  degrees.  All  the 
occupations  were  of  lower  order;  industrial  work,  the 
mechanic  arts  were  assigned  to  Indians  and  mestizos  or  to 
the  few  foreign  immigrants.  Territorial  wealth,  perpetu- 
ated in  fact  on  the  society  of  colonial  origin,  was  distrib- 
uted among  very  few.  That  mountain  beyond,  one  of 
nature's  wonders,  that  far-off  prairie  to  which  no  horse's 
gallop  finds  an  end,  that  valley  which  could  produce  bread 
enough  for  an  empire,  are  very  often  the  property  of  one 
single  man,  rich  feudal  patrimony  where  the  bent  figure 
of  the  indigene  represents  the  rustic  who  satisfies  every 
obligation  to  the  master.  Numberless  clergymen  distributed 
among  the  settlements  in  convents,  together  with  the  mul- 
titude of  secular  ecclesiasts,  caused  the  population  the  effect 
of  the  plant  that  is  being  attacked  by  ants. 

"Also  in  contiguous  hierarchy  was  the  attorney,  capable 
and  only  versatile  personage  acquainted  with  all  phases  of 
understanding  as  a  politician,  writer,  poet,  orator,  and 
carrying  wherever  he  went  as  the  keys  to  universal  knowl- 
edge, his  Peripateticism,  also  his  Latin.  To  complete  the 
scene  of  the  privileged  fraternity,  there  was  the  soldier,  the 
personification  of  a  force,  as  a  rule,  uncultured  and  rough, 
but  who  acquired  prominence  through  the  laurels  of  eman- 
cipation and  inclined  to  the  leadership  in  politics,  to  which 
he  had  to  offer  some  assistance  at  the  first  timid  show  of 
reaction  against  the  all-embracing  clerical  influence." 

"The  aggregate  of  society  thus  constituted  was  that  of  a 
vast  convent  which,  as  in  the  time  of  the  feudal  lordships, 


18         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

had  near  its  fortified  walls  an  abbatial  hamlet  which  sounds 
of  activities  of  disputes  or  festivities  were  lost  in  the  lofty 
and  austere  majesty  of  monastical  silence."  (Pages  from 
Rodo). 

All  the  Indians  of  Bolivia  had  to  pay  tribute  to  the 
Spanish  treasury  in  manner  as  follows :  Those  called  Origi- 
narios,  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Indian  settlements, 
owning  land  in  the  valley  and  on  the  puna  (plateau),  paid 
nine  pesos  and  six  reales  (one  real  is  about  one  eighth  of  a 
peso)  per  head  per  year.  The  Agregados,  owning  a  very 
small  portion  of  land  in  the  valley  or  a  larger  one  on  the 
puna,  paid  seven  pesos  annually,  that  of  the  "Forasteros," 
who  owned  no  land,  four  pesos  annually. 

They  had  established  the  Caja  General  de  Censos  (General 
Annuity  Funds)  for  the  purpose  of  paying  tribute  in  case 
of  epidemic  or  poor  crops.  The  lands  were  assigned  on  a 
usufructuary  basis  and  could  never  become  private  prop- 
erty. Tribute  was  expected  only  from  the  Indians,  who 
should  have  been  by  right  the  owners  of  the  lands.  When- 
ever tribute  was  demanded  from  a  Negro,  a  Mestizo  (half- 
breed)  or  a  white,  the  Court  would  exempt  him,  stating: 
"Having  proved  that  he  is  not  an  Indian  he  is  hereby  ex- 
empted." 

Bolivar  abolished  the  law  of  tribute  in  1825,  but  it  was 
reestablished  and  remained  in  force  until  years  afterwards. 

The  excessive  mortality  rate  brought  about  by  Spanish 
colonization  of  South  America  is  briefly  explained  in  the  fol- 
lowing lines : 

"Though  we  were  good,  useful  farmers  we  were  sent  into 
the  mines,  where  they  loaded  us  like  so  many  beasts  of 
burden  carrying  baskets  of  ore,  and  so  making  life  for  us 
down  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth  harsh  and  unendurable." 

The  same  system  which  decreed  that  landed  property 
should  never  belong  to  the  individual  but  to  the  State,  pre- 
vailed in  the  empire  of  the  Incas  for  thousands  of  years  and 
was  adopted  by  the  Spaniards,  who  did  not  suspect  that 
the  modern  Georgians  were  to  come  centuries  after  to  find 


KEG  ION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER      19 

this  old-as-the-world  system  to  be  the  panacea  of  all  social 
evils.  In  Russia,  just  before  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
which  has  recently  come  to  an  end,  there  were  vast  regions 
of  millions  of  square  kilometers  ruled  under  the  strictest 
communism  dividing  the  land  periodically  in  parcels  allotted 
on  a  usufructuary  basis  according  to  the  number  of  mem- 
bers of  each  family.  It  was  practiced  as  the  Peruvians  did, 
as  did  also  the  Jews  during  their  celebrated  jubilees  held 
every  fifty  years. 

Mackenzie  in  his  very  interesting  book,  "Russia,"  dC' 
scribes  the  result  of  the  system  in  that  country  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  "Nobody  digs  either  a  ditch  or  a  well,  nor 
plants  a  tree,  nor  constructs  a  durable  dwelling,  nor  a  fence* 
or  any  other  improvement,  for  he  knows  he  builds  for  some- 
one else,"  The  Georgians  do  not  take  into  consideration 
the  fact  that  if  the  land  is  valuable,  it  is  due  in  almost 
every  case  to  the  accumulated  work  of  man  where  one 
family  has  had  the  possession  of  it  for  several  generations 
and  has  improved  it  continuously. 

The  most  fertile  fields  of  the  La  Plata  and  where  the  best 
livestock  is  raised  owe  their  productivity  largely  to  the 
industry  of  the  settlers,  who  were  obliged  to  root  out  and 
eradicate  weeds,  thorns,  and  thickets  of  all  kinds,  annihilate 
the  beasts  of  prey,  and  at  the  same  time  defend  themselves 
from  savage  tribes. 

Where  no  inducement  exists  for  man  to  become  the  pos- 
sessor of  the  land  he  cultivates,  the  land  will  be  of  little 
or  no  value,  as  no  one  is  willing  to  toil  for  the  exclusive 
benefit  of  others. 

At  the  time  the  slaves  of  Brazil  were  given  their  liberty, 
the  Brazilian  landowners,  under  the  impression  that  the 
slaves  were  the  only  laborers,  believed,  or  pretended  to  be- 
lieve, that  Brazil  would  suffer  a  terrible  calamity  because 
nothing  would  be  produced.  It  was  their  opinion  that  the 
Negro  no  longer  under  the  lash  would  not  work',  yet  the 
reverse  happened.  Production  increased  as  the  effort  of 
the  freed  Negro  to  do  better  work  increased.     The  same 


20         SOUTH  AMEKICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

results  would  have  been  obtained  had  they  decreed  that 
each  Indian  work  for  his  own  benefit. 

The  Indian  Problem 

Such  was  the  condition  of  the  Indian  of  the  Andean  tribes 
of  South  America  under  Spanish  domination,  and  it  so 
remained  until  a  few  years  ago.  The  laws  enacted  have 
had  the  tendency  right  along  to  better  the  condition  of  the 
Indian,  for  there  have  constantly  appeared  legislators  who 
have  been  inspired  by  a  sense  of  humanity  and  justice  to  im- 
prove their  condition.  Yet  laws  are  impotent  against  the 
customs  of  tribes  that  for  centuries  have  received  their  train- 
ing in  the  conqueror's  school  of  barbarism. 

What  could  be  expected  of  a  conquering  nation  whose 
hero,  Pizarro,  the  Conqueror  of  Peru,  could  neither  read 
nor  write?  What  could  be  expected  of  a  cruel,  ignorant, 
and  fanatical  army  which  only  aspired  to  plunder?  The 
Araucanos,  indefatigable  defenders  of  their  native  land, 
compelled  the  Conqueror  Valdivia  to  drink  melted  gold  and 
made  him  atone  for  all  the  crimes  committed  by  his  sol- 
diers, who,  like  their  leader,  had  only  one  desire  as  they 
conquered,  and  that  was  the  accumulation  of  riches,  even 
if  it  were  necessary  to  decapitate  millions  of  human  beings. 

The  Indians  of  Peru,  victims  of  the  most  abject  slavery, 
the  product  of  absolute  monarchies,  were  unable  to  defend 
their  soil  against  a  handful  of  adventurers. 

Following  the  overthrow  of  Spanish  rule,  the  great 
Bolivar,  through  wise  legislation,  initiated  the  regeneration 
of  the  Indian,  but  being  that  the  political  directors,  descend- 
ants of  the  Spaniards,  had  the  same  defects  as  their  predeces- 
sors, the  tendencies  of  the  Liberator  availed  little  or  noth- 
ing. Even  to-day  the  Indian  desirous  of  living  a  free,  un- 
trammelled life  is  compelled  to  ascend  the  summit  of  lofty, 
glacial  mountain  peaks  of  4,000  to  5,000  meters  elevation 
looking  after  his  small  herd  of  llamas  and  alpacas.  Should 
he  venture  to  descend  to  the  plains  from  his  dwelling  amid 
the  clouds,  he  becomes  the  victim  of  a  Government  that 


REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  21 

places  him  in  barracks  to  equip  him  as  a  soldier.  Should 
he  hire  out  to  work  he  becomes  the  victim  of  an  employer 
who  pays  him  a  miserable  wage  of  one  quarter  to  one  half 
dollar  per  day  without  meals.  He  starts  to  work  at  sun- 
rise, after  partaking  of  a  scanty  breakfast,  works  all  day 
without  a  morsel  of  food,  only  now  and  then  chewing  on 
coca  leaves  to  check  his  hunger. 

Notwithstanding  this  condition,  there  are  over  2,000,000 
Indians  in  Peru  who  have  nothing  to  subsist  on.  Yet  the 
influx  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  Chinese  coolies  is  looked 
upon  with  favor,  notorious  gamblers  who  at  night  stake 
their  earnings  of  the  day  before,  and  who  are  both  morally 
and  physically  inferior  to  the  Indian. 

It  is  pathetic  to  find  the  Chinese  hotels  and  lodging  houses 
of  Callao  and  Lima  crowded  with  the  lower  element  of  the 
populace  who  are  partly  attracted  there  by  the  ridiculously 
low  prices  of  meals,  then  to  gamble  away  the  few  cents 
saved  at  the  expense  of  their  stomachs.  The  Chinaman's 
love  of  gambling  is  such  that  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  the 
employer  become  the  servant  of  his  servant,  the  former 
having  staked  his  entire  hotel  on  one  unlucky  play  of  the 
night  before. 

The  admission  of  the  Chinese  has  been  harmful  and  will 
prove  even  more  so  as  time  goes  on,  not  only  because  the 
Chinaman  is  mentally  and  physically  the  Indian's  inferior, 
but  also  economically,  inasmuch  as  the  Chinaman  with  his 
long  and  varied  experience  is  a  more  successful  farmer, 
knowledge  which  the  Indian  can  in  time  acquire  with  his 
superior  intelligence.  The  fault  lies  with  the  Governments 
which,  absorbed  in  preoccupied  politics,  neglect  those  vital 
problems  which  should  make  the  foundation  and  the  bul- 
wark of  a  nation. 

Imagine  what  2,000,000  farm  hands  trained  in  all  the 
branches  of  agriculture  could  accomplish  oh  soil  so  un- 
usually fertile  as  that  of  Peru,  where  sugar-cane,  cotton, 
and  various  other  plants  for  which  the  soil  seems  to  be 
particularly  adapted,  yield  such  good  returns.    What  enor- 


22         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

mous  production  this  country  would  contribute  to  the 
world  at  large  should  it  collect  the  energy  of  so  many- 
hands  right  at  its  doors,  only  awaiting  the  opportunity  to 
be  called  by  other  more  enterprising  nations.  When  we 
turn  to  Argentina,  with  its  copious  production  of  5,000,000 
tons  of  cereals,  which  it  places  in  European  markets,  and 
which  is  the  product  of  work  done  almost  entirely  by  1,000,- 
000  Italian  laborers  who  have  transformed  the  country  from 
a  purely  live-stock  raising  community  to  first  place  in  the 
world's  granary,  we  can  form  a  fair  idea  of  what  the  evolu- 
tion of  Peru  will  be  when  it  learns  to  utilize  its  idle  millions. 

Besides  the  resident  laborers  of  Argentina,  it  has  been 
benefited  by  the  added  experience  of  thousands  of  golon- 
drinas  (swallows)  farm-hands  transported  directly  from 
Italy,  who  engage  in  agricultural  work  during  the  winter 
of  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  during  three  or  four  months 
of  the  austral  summer  season  at  the  end  of  which  time 
they  return  to  Europe.  The  golondrinas  have  stayed  away 
since  1914,  and  will  remain  absent  till  no  one  knows  when, 
as  many,  perhaps,  have  gone  with  the  departed  ten  million 
and  more  laborers  for  whom  Europe  now  mourns  and  whom 
the  whole  world  will  miss.  Should  there  be  any  extra  hands 
in  Italy,  they  will  perhaps  go  to  France,  whose  shops  have 
lost  2,000,000  men  in  the  recent  war,  or  perhaps  to  England 
or  to  both.  Argentina  will  therefore  have  a  shortage  of 
human  working  machines  which  have  contributed  to  its 
present  prosperity.  It  will  lose  tens  of  thousands  of  vigor- 
ous young  men  when  French  and  Belgian  industries  start 
anew — where  they  can  afford  to  offer  a  higher  wage  than 
Argentina  because  their  products  show  a  correspondingly 
larger  profit.  But  Argentina  could  advantageously  substi- 
tute Italian  labor  with  Indian  labor  from  Peru  and  Bolivia, 
the  Indian  being  an  agriculturist,  has  cultivated  maize  for 
centuries,  is  as  a  rule  sober  in  his  habits,  and  possesses 
endurance  and  unusual  physical  strength. 

The  Bolivian  railroad  now  under  construction,  and  which 
will  connect  Quiaca  and  Uyuni,  will  permit  the  transfer 


REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  23 

of  laborers  from  Peru  aud  Bolivia  to  Argentina,  something 
wliicli  deserves  primary  consideration  in  the  service  of  the 
Bolivian-Argentine  railway.  This  might  not  coincide  with 
the  Utopian  idea  of  the  Argentinos  that  this  railroad  will 
turn  the  Bolivian  market  to  them,  as  they  believe  that  there 
is  nothing  that  Bolivia  can  export  in  either  mineral  or 
vegetable  products  that  can  afford  the  freight  from  Quiaca 
to  the  ports  of  Buenos  Aires  and  Rosario,  which  are  at  a 
distance  of  about  400  leagues  (1,200  miles  more  or  less) 
from  the  Bolivian  frontier  by  rail.  The  mineral  and  vege- 
table products  will  always  be  exported  through  the  Pacific 
ports,  excepting  lumber,  sugar,  and  coffee,  which  can  be 
transported  out  of  the  country  much  more  economically 
via  I*ort  Suarez  on  the  Paraguay,  opposite  Corumbd 
(Brazil),  a  river  port  with  service  by  the  Lloyd  Brazilian 
Steamship  Line,  which  steamers  connect  with  Buenos  Aires, 
Montevideo,  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  all  ports  of  the  Brazilian 
coast  line.  One  very  much  needed  improvement  would  be 
a  railroad  from  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra  across  the  Bolivian 
Chaco  in  order  that  this  market  coiild  be  successfully  de- 
veloped, a  fact  which  ought  to  interest  the  Bolivian  republic 
above  everything  else. 

It  is  of  necessity  that  l^eru  and  Bolivia  consider  both  the 
utilization  of  the  Indian  and  his  intellectual  and  moral 
development  as  the  primordial  problem  affecting  his  ex- 
istence. How  much  better  it  would  be  for  these  two 
nations  to  solve  the  Indian  question,  than  to  employ  the 
energy  of  their  intellectual  lights  in  disputing  with  their 
neighbors  the  Argentinos,  Paraguayos,  Brasileros,  Ecua- 
torianos  and  Colombianos  over  parcels  of  lands  which  can 
not  compare  in  natural  wealth  to  those  that  remain  aban- 
doned and  unproductive  within  the  confines  of  their  native 
land. 

We  do  not  make  mention  of  Chile,  which  country  is  in 
conflict  with  the  countries  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  for  the 
reason  that  this  is  an  entirely  different  proposition  involv- 
ing self-love  and  national  dignity.     The  illusory  ambition  of 


24         SOUTH  AMEKTCA  PAST  AND  PEESENT 

seeking  additional  lands,  is  a  universal  malady.  Geograph- 
ical vanity  seems  to  be  a  world-wide  contagion.  Spain  has 
bnried  hundreds  of  thousands  of  her  soldiers  on  African 
soil  where  she  has  covetously  sought  new  lands  to  conquer, 
while  at  the  very  doors  of  the  city  of  Madrid  there  lies  a 
desert-like  region  unfilled  and  worthless  and  which  might 
as  well  be  a  part  of  the  African  desert  so  desolate  and 
barren  it  is. 

Italy  with  its  maremmas,  its  pontin  lagoons,  its  malaria 
on  the  outskirts  of  Rome  as  described  in  the  bulletins 
announcing  the  manner  of  combating  this  terrible  disease, 
and  its  Isle  of  Sardinia  now  almost  deserted  and  which  at 
one  time  provided  the  whole  of  the  Roman  Emj)ire  with  its 
grain,  seeks  new  lands  in  Abyssinia  where  the  torrid  heat 
of  the  sun  would  have  ere  this  made  victims  of  legions  of 
Italian  soldiers  had  not  Menelik  awakened  them  to  the  fact 
that  they  were  merely  chasing  phantoms. 

The  Uruguayans  have  lost  half  of  their  territory  by  hav- 
ing it  snatched  away  from  them  by  the  Portuguese  and  their 
descendants,  the  Brazilians.  This,  however,  does  not  affect 
the  size  of  their  territory,  inasmuch  as  their  gauchos  and 
capitalists  have  literally  taken  possession  of  the  province 
of  Rio  Grande  where  they  own  vast  areas  of  land,  and  the 
lack  of  additional  territory  also  is  made  up  by  their  attrac- 
tive Montevideo,  the  residential  city  of  all  the  big  land- 
owners, as  it  is  also  the  principal  port  of  exportation  for 
their  abundant  livestock  production. 

First  Spanish  Settlements  in  Uruguay 

The  first  settlements  of  the  Banda  Oriental  (Eastern 
Bank)  had  as  their  object  the  defense  of  the  territory 
against  the  Portuguese  who  invaded  it  to 
StS  T'  ^^"^  carry  off  livestock  into  Brazil  to  San  Paulo, 
betwe^en^'pamards  which  was  fouudcd  by  Criminals  of  all 
and  Portuguese  gorts.     These  wcre  a  constant  menace  to 

Spanish  colonization. 


REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  25 

The  Portuguese  founded  the  Colony  of  Sacramento  in 
1680  opposite  Buenos  Aires,  from  which  place  they  were 
driven  out  by  the  Spanish  Governor,  The  Portuguese  Gov- 
ernor was  made  prisoner  and  deported  to  Lima.  Hostili- 
ties continued  until  1G81  when  the  treaty  between  the  Cortes 
of  Spain  and  Portugal  decreed  the  return  of  the  Colony  to 
Portugal  until  such  a  time  as  the  boundaries  of  the  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  colonies  be  determined. 

In  1704  the  Spaniards  of  Buenos  Aires  received  instruc- 
tions from  the  Metropolis  to  dislodge  the  Portuguese  from 
the  Colony  which  they  proceeded  to  do,  compelling  the 
Portuguese  to  evacuate.  But,  in  1715,  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  it  became  the  possession  of  Portugal  once  again. 
Later,  in  1720  and  1722,  they  tried  to  occupy  Montevideo, 
but  failed. 

In  order  to  prevent  further  assaults  by  the  Portuguese, 
Zabala,  Governor  of  Buenos  Aires,  founded  the  city  of  San 
Felipe  y  Santiago  de  Montevideo  in  1726.  The  Portuguese 
of  the  Colony  continued  their  incursions  from  all  sides  but 
again  without  success,  and  finally  by  the  treaty  of  1750  be- 
tween Spain  and  Portugal  the  Colony  was  ceded  to  Spain. 
This  treaty  fixed  the  Ibicuy  River — tributary  of  the  Uruguay 
— as  the  boundary  between  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
possessions.  Notwithstanding  the  treaty,  the  Portuguese 
occupied  the  Colony  until  1762,  when  the  Spaniards  resorted 
to  a  twenty-five  day  siege  and  forced  the  Portuguese  to 
evacuate. 

Zeballos,  then  Spanish  Governor,  proceeded  east  and  took 
the  fortifications  of  Santa  Teresa  and  San  Miguel,  which 
the  Portuguese  had  built  on  Spanish  soil. 

The  Ibicuy  boundary  should  have  been  mutually  accepted 
as  the  dividing  line  between  the  Republics  of  Uruguay  and 
Brazil,  but  the  latter,  contrary  to  all  justice,  extended  its 
domain  farther  south  as  far  as  the  Cuareim  River,  This 
treaty  was  endorsed  by  and  imposed  upon  Uruguay  by 
Argentina  under  the  government  of  General  Urquiza  in 
1851.     The  Government  of  Uruguay  declared  that  it  ac- 


26         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

cepted  the  imposition  inasmuch  as  it  lacked  the  necessary 
means  to  defend  its  rights. 

ViCEROYSHIP  OF  RiO  DE  LA  PlATA  FoUNDED   IN   1776 

The  Viceroyship  of  the  La  Plata  River  was  established 
in  1776,  taking-  in  addition  the  gubernatorial  districts  of 
Paraguay  and  Tucuman,  under  Viceroy  Don  Pablo  de  Zeba- 
llos,  who  took  possession  of  the  Colony,  and  in  so  doing 
demolished  its  ramparts. 

The  treaty  of  1777  granted  to  Spain  all  of  the  dominion 
of  the  Banda  Oriental  of  Uruguay.  Zeballos,  a  progressive 
ruler,  divided  the  territory  into  eight  districts,  each  under 
an  intendent,  and  gave  the  settlers  permission  to  trade  with 
outsiders,  which  until  then  had  been  prohibited. 

All  merchandise  that  had  come  to  Uruguay  in  the  past 
came  through  the  Ports  of  Panama  and  Portobelo,  thence  to 
Potosi  to  La  Plata,  its  price  increasing  from  800  per  cent 
to  1,000  per  cent.  This  liberty  of  commercial  activity  gave 
importance  to  the  Banda  Oriental  for  its  abundant  live- 
stock. 

Hostilities  were  again  renewed  between  Spain  and 
Portugal  in  1800,  the  Portuguese  taking  possession  of  the 
Misiones  Orientales  (Eastern  Missions)  of  Upper  Uruguay, 
which  they  retained  according  to  the  treaty  of  peace  that 
followed.  This  started  the  boundary  disputes  between 
Brazil  and  Argentina,  which  were  submitted  for  decision  to 
the  President  of  the  United  States  of  America  only  a  few 
years  ago. 

Invasions  op  the  La  Plata  by  the  English 

The  English  having  profited  by  their  triumph  at  Traf- 
algar in  1805, 'attacked  in  1806  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires  with 
an  army  of  6,000  men,  and  as  no  resistance  was  offered,  due 
to  cowardice  on  the  part  of  Viceroy  Sobremonte,  the  Eng- 
lish quickly  took  possession  of  the  city. 

The  Spaniards  of  Montevideo  soon  after  planned  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  English  from  Buenos  Aires,  and  embarking 


SOUTH  I 
AMERICA 


KEGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  27 

at  Colonia,  under  command  of  Liniers,  they  descended  near 
the  city  and  with  the  cooperation  of  the  men  and  women 
residents  advanced  upon  the  invaders,  and  after  a  bloody 
struggle  the  English  finally  capitulated. 

In  his  proclamation,  the  leader  of  the  patricians  stated: 
"The  men  born  in  America  are  not  inferior  to  the  Spaniards 
or  Europeans  and  no  one  surpasses  them  in  courage." 
Viceroy  Sobremonte  was  repudiated  by  the  people  master 
of  their  own  destinies,  and  named  Liniers  in  his  place. 

The  defeat  of  the  English  caused  great  enthusiasm  in 
Spain,  and  the  Cortes  awarded  as  a  recompense  to  Monte- 
video, a  coat-of-arms  and  the  title  "Muy  Leal  y  Recon- 
quistadora  Ciudad"  (Most  Loyal  and  Reconquering  City). 

The  English  returned  and  captured  the  coveted  port  of 
Maldonado  at  the  mouth  of  the  La  Plata  River  and  marched 
against  Montevideo  with  8,000  men,  laying  the  city  waste 
and  capturing  it  after  a  slaughter  where  the  English  them- 
selves suffered  great  losses.  This  battle  took  place  during 
the  month  of  February,  1807.  In  July  of  the  same  year, 
the  English  advanced  upon  Buenos  Aires,  but  the  opposing 
forces  surprised  them  by  the  stubborn  resistance  they  offered 
and  forced  the  English  to  retreat,  also  compelling  them  to 
surrender  the  sea  coast  of  Montevideo,  which  they  abandoned 
on  the  19th  of  the  following  September. 

The  short  stay  of  the  English  at  Montevideo  proved  bene- 
ficial to  the  native  South  Americans,  as  it  helped  them  to 
foresee  the  realization  of  their  aspirations  for  a  better  gov- 
ernment and  the  assurance  of  political  and  commercial 
liberty.  It  was  then  that  the  first  daily  appeared  in  the  La 
Plata  region. 

Popular  Movements  Forerunners  of  the  South 
American  Revolution 

The  spirit  of  independence  among  the  American  settle- 
ments had  been  cropping  out  for  some  years,  and  in  refer- 
ence to  its  manifestations  the  Spaniard  Antonio  Juan  de 
Ulloa  said  in  1731 :  "It  seems  improper  that  among  people 


28         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

under  the  same  Government  and  having  the  same  blood 
coursing  through  their  veins  that  there  should  exist  such 
enmity,  ill-will  and  hatred,  and  that  the  cities  and  large 
centers  of  population  should  be  the  scenes  of  discord  and 
continued  opposition  between  the  Spaniards  and  the 
Creoles." 

Two  revolutionary  movements  were  started  in  Venezuela 
in  the  years  1711  and  1713,  the  first  one  proclaiming  a 
native  born  King,  and  the  second  was  an  uprising  by  the 
Creoles  against  the  monopoly  created  by  the  Compania 
Giupuzcana  of  Caracas. 

In  1730,  the  Mestizos  of  Cochabamba  secured  the  right  to 
elect  Alcaldes  (Mayors)  and  Corregidores  (Town  Magis- 
trates) from  among  the  Creoles  and  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
Spaniards.  In  August,  1809,  the  natives  of  Quito  failed  to 
recognize  the  Spanish  authorities  ruling  over  them  and 
established  an  assembly  under  the  title  of  "Soberana" 
(Supreme).  During  the  following  May,  the  Creoles  of 
Chuquisaca  in  Bolivia  deposed  the  Spanish  authorities  and 
organized  a  governmental  assembly.  Two  months  later  the 
natives  of  La  Paz  rose  up  in  arms  under  the  cry  "Mueran 
Los  Chapetones"  (Death  to  the  Spaniards),  and  also  organ- 
ized a  governmental  assembly  and  in  their  proclamation 
stated:  "The  time  has  now  come  to  raise  the  banner  of 
liberty  over  these  unfortunate  colonies."  These  two  revo- 
lutions were  crushed  by  the  Spaniards,  who,  following  their 
established  precedents,  put  the  leaders  to  death. 

In  1809  Montevideo  was  the  scene  of  a  conspiracy  wherein 
Don  Joaquin  Sudrez,  Larraiiaga,  Perez,  Barreiro,  Monte- 
rroso,  and  other  patriots  planned  to  strike  a  blow  to  Spanish 
rule  in  the  La  Plata  region. 

Mention  must  be  made  of  Miranda,  who  had  ten  years  be- 
fore organized  in  the  City  of  London  the  association  called 
Gran  Reuni6n  Americana  (Great  American  Union)  for  the 
purpose  of  framing  a  republican  constitution  for  the  various 
Spanish  colonies.  Among  the  prominent  members  of  the 
Society  were  Alvear  and  San  Martin,  natives  of  Argentina ; 


REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  29 

O'Higgins,  Chilean ;  NariSo  and  Montufar,  Granadinos 
(from  U.  S.  of  Colombia,  at  that  time  Nueva  Granada)  ; 
Rocafuerte,  Ecuadorian;  Caro,  Cuban, 

The  so-called  ''Guerra  de  los  Comuneros"  (War  of  the 
Comuneros-party  opposed  to  the  tyranny  of  Carlos  V)  of 
Paraguay  in  1723,  was  the  expression  of  an  enraged  public 
at  the  city  of  Asuncion  when  the  then  Governor  Vic- 
toria, an  appointee  of  the  Spanish  Crown,  following  a 
custom  of  the  Metropolis,  gave  up  his  office,  for  a  monetary 
consideration,  to  Balmaceda.  In  consequence  of  this,  the 
Cabildo  of  Asunci6n  arrayed  itself  against  the  Governor  and 
opposed  him  with  unusual  zeal.  The  Royal  Audience  of 
Charcas  sent  Antequera,  a  native  attorney  and  prosecuting 
member  of  the  Audience,  to  settle  the  dispute.  As  an 
American,  Antequera  favored  the  Cabildo  and  decreed  the 
imprisonment  of  the  Governor,  who  lost  no  time  in  leaving 
the  country. 

The  Cabildo  represented  the  wishes  of  the  people  against 
the  authority  and  tyranny  of  the  Metropolis.  The  Viceroy 
of  Peru,  on  hearing  the  complaint  of  the  deposed  Governor, 
ordered  Antequera  to  reinstate  him  in  office,  to  which 
Antequera  replied  that  he  would  not  respect  the  order,  as 
the  authority  of  the  people  was  superior  to  that  of  the  King. 

In  support  of  the  stand  that  he  had  taken,  Antequera 
caused  Paraguay  to  revolt,  the  people  investing  him  with 
the  powers  of  Governor  in  opposition  to  the  King's  will, 
just  as  the  Comuneros  of  Castilla  had  done  under  the  com- 
mand of  Juan  de  Padilla,  in  defense  of  Spanish  municipal 
liberties  against  the  tyranny  of  Carlos  V,  son  of  Juana  La 
Loca  (Jane  the  Insane)  and  Emperor  of  Germany  and  King 
of  Spain,  that  historical  figure  whose  record  so  closely  resem- 
bles that  of  the  German  ex-Kaiser,  now  a  refugee  in  Holland. 

Antequera  was  prepared  for  the  Spanish  forces  which 
were  marching  against  him,  decisively  defeating  them  with 
a  loss  of  800  of  his  own  men.  On  withdrawing  from 
Paraguay,  he  assembled  the  Cabildo  and  advised  that  opposi- 
tion be  made  to  the  entry  of  the  new  Spanish  Governor. 


30         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

Antequera,  being  later  apprehended,  was  tried  and  executed 
in  Lima  in  1731. 

Turning  back  two  centuries,  1540,  Gonzalo  Pizarro,  in 
Peru,  revolted  against  Spain,  and  Carbajal,  his  next  in  com- 
mand, ordered  the  royal  banner  burned.  They  were  both 
arrested  and  summarily  executed.  From  this  time  onward 
the  smouldering  spirit  of  independence  kept  constantly 
growing  and  developing,  finally  preparing  the  people  for  the 
memorable  outburst  recorded  as  the  Pronunciamiento  (up- 
rising) of  Buenos  Aires  on  May  25,  1810  (South  America's 
Fourth  of  July),  when  the  people  at  a  public  demonstration, 
which  took  place  in  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires,  proclaimed 
a  governmental  Junta. 

The  leaders  of  the  revolution  pledged  themselves  not  to 
recognize  any  other  government  than  that  of  Fernando  VII 
— even  if  such  were  not  their  intention. 

The  people  of  Caracas  in  Venezuela  had  one  month  before, 
on  the  19th  of  April,  dismissed  the  Spanish  rulers  and  ap- 
pointed an  Assembly  to  govern  in  the  name  of  Fernando 
VII.    Chile  did  likewise  on  the  18th  of  September  following. 

These  manifestations  of  discontent  were  further  incited 
by  the  proclamation  issued  by  Napoleon  I,  Emperor  of 
France,  in  behalf  of  his  brother  Joseph  Bonaparte  for  the 
throne  of  Spain  while  the  Emperor  was  holding  Fer- 
nando VII,  the  legitimate  owner  of  the  Spanish  Crown,  a 
prisoner  at  Bayona.  This  was  the  cause  of  the  Spanish 
revolt  at  Madrid  on  the  2nd  of  May  when  the  Supreme 
Governmental  Assembly  at  Sevilla  was  organized  to  govern 
in  place  of  the  imbecile  King,  Fernando  VII. 

The  Buenos  Aires  Junta  two  days  after  its  organiza- 
tion sent  out  a  proclamation  inviting  the  settlements  to  ap- 
point Deputies,  and  on  the  strength  of  this  invitation  the 
Royalist  Party  invited  the  Assembly  to  recognize  the  Board 
of  Regency  of  Spain.  Liniers  in  Cordoba  revolted  in  sup- 
port of  this  pretension  of  the  Crown,  was  promptly  subdued 
by  the  Assembly  forces,  and  he  and  his  companions  executed 
in  the  month  of  August,  1810. 


REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  31 

Montevideo,  a  well  fortified  city  under  the  Realistas 
(Royal  Party),  was  opposed  to  the  revolution,  and,  on  the 
arrival  of  the  Viceroy  Elio,  the  hostilities  with  Buenos  Aires 
began. 

The  Banda  Oriental  of  Uruguay  declared  for  the  revolu- 
tion, with  Viera  and  Beuavides  at  Ascencio  near  Mercedes, 
at  the  head,  and  supported  by  the  garrison  of  the  city  of 
Mercedes  under  the  command  of  Fernandez.  Artigas,  later 
commander  of  the  Orientales,  joined  with  a  strong  force, 
which  increased  the  army  of  patriots  to  3,000  under  the  com- 
mand of  Belgrano,  who  was  later  succeeded  by  Rondeau. 

The  Artigas  detachment  was  rushed  to  Montevideo,  meet- 
ing the  Spanish  forces  near  Las  Piedras  where  he  engaged 
them  in  battle,  annihilated  them,  and  made  their  leader. 
General  Posadas,  prisoner.  This  was  the  first  battle, 
"Batalla  de  Las  Piedras,"  in  1811,  which  was  won  by  South 
Americans  in  the  war  of  independence  and  which  gave 
General  Artigas,  Commander  of  the  Orientales,  increased 
prestige. 

Not  long  after,  Artigas,  together  with  General  Rondeau, 
who  commanded  the  Argentine  forces,  laid  siege  to  Monte- 
video, but  soon  withdrawing  under  resolution  by  the  Argen- 
tine government,  claiming  that  it  was  imperative  that  the 
army  be  sent  to  Perti. 

Exodus  of  the  People  of  Eastern  Uruguay 

The  Orientales,  on  being  left  with  only  their  own  forces 
by  the  Argeutinos,  who  had  previously  signed  a  treaty  with 
the  Spanish  Viceroy  of  Montevideo,  were  obliged  to  combat 
not  only  the  Spaniards  but  also  the  Portuguese,  who  had 
invaded  the  territory  of  the  Orientales  to  protect  the 
Spaniards,  their  temporary  allies. 

Artigas,  as  the  leader  of  the  Orientales,  protested  against 
this  treachery  of  the  Buenos  Aires  Government  and  with- 
drew to  the  interior  accompanied  by  the  patrician  families, 
including  all  the  women  and  children  and  the  aged,  all  of 


32         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

whom  were  giving  up  their  native  land  and  suffering  untold 
hardships  rather  than  become  a  foreign  master's  slave. 
This  noble  act  of  collective  heroism  is  known  in  South 
American  history  as  the  "Exodo  del  Pueblo  Oriental  del 
Uruguay"  (Exodus  of  the  People  of  Eastern  Uruguay). 

Artigas,  with  his  small  army  and  his  people,  had  to  cross 
to  the  western  bank  of  the  Uruguay  in  order  to  save  them- 
selves from  complete  destruction  on  being  attacked  by  the 
Portuguese. 

The  Army  op  Argentina  Crosses  the  Uruguay  to  Combat 
THE  Portuguese  . 

The  Buenos  Aires  Junta  protested  against  the  entry 
of  the  Portuguese  army,  which,  according  to  the  treaty, 
should  have  returned  to  Brazil.  Being  unable  to  come  to 
an  immediate  settlement,  the  war  with  the  Spaniards  and 
Portuguese  was  started,  and  accordingly  the  Argentinos 
sent  an  army  under  Rondeau  against  Montevideo. 

Artigas  of  the  Orientales,  as  per  agreement  entered  into 
with  Rondeau,  brought  his  forces  and  formed  the  left  wing 
of  the  army  of  patriots  and  began  the  advance  on 
Montevideo. 

On  April  5,  1813,  Artigas  brought  together  delegates 
from  among  the  Orientales  who,  in  Congress  assembled, 
recognized  the  authority  of  the  Buenos  Aires  Junta, 
appointed  a  municipal  body  entrusted  with  the  internal 
governmental  functions  of  the  province,  and  sent  five  depu- 
ties to  the  general  Congress  which  was  to  convene  in  Buenos 
Aires.  These  deputies  had  instructions  to  ask  for  the  abso- 
lute independence  of  the  provinces  of  the  La  Plata  and  the 
formation  of  a  Confederacy  of  all  of  them,  constituted  under 
a  republican  form  of  government.  These  were  the  cele- 
brated instructions  of  1813,  which  had  as  their  fundamental 
principle,  on  petition  by  the  Oriental  Deputies,  the  im- 
mediate declaration  of  absolute  independence  of  the 
colonies,  permanently  relieving  them  of  all  obligations  of 
fidelity  to  the  Spanish  Crown  and  the  family  of  the  Bor- 


kp:gion  of  the  la  plata  kiver  33 

bones,  and  that  all  political  connections  between  the  colo- 
nies and  Spain  be  and  remain  completely  abrogated.  They 
were  not  to  accept,  in  substitution  of  the  absolute  regime, 
any  other  than  a  republican  form  of  government  nor  any 
other  system  than  the  "Confederacion  de  los  Estados 
Soberanos  del  Plata"  (Confederacy  of  the  Sovereign  States 
of  the  La  Plata).  The  celebrated  instructions  of  1813  came 
newly  to  light  in  1867,  having  been  found  at  Asuncion  dur- 
ing that  year  and  published  in  1878. 

Historians,  both  friends  and  enemies  of  Artigas,  com- 
mented on  them  without  knowing  what  they  really  were. 
These  instructions  form  the  basis  of  a  constitution  pat- 
terned after  that  of  the  United  States  of  America.  Such 
were  the  views  of  the  leader  of  the  Orientales,  though  the 
form  of  government  that  those  people  should  have  who  still 
called  themselves  subjects  of  Fernando  VII  had  not  yet 
been  defined. 

On  Congress  refusing  to  accept  the  Oriental  Deputies, 
Artigas  petitioned  the  Argentine  General  Rondeau,  head 
of  the  army,  for  a  new  edict  on  the  election  of  Deputies,  and, 
according  to  the  Argentine  government,  elections  should 
be  held  at  the  encampment,  or  general  headquarters,  of  the 
Argentines,  on  the  8th  of  the  following  December. 

Thus  was  elected  the  Provincial  Representation,  which 
appointed  three  Deputies  to  the  Congress  of  Buenos  Aires 
and  a  municipal  assembly  of  three  members.  This  election 
was  protested  by  Artigas,  inasmuch  as  it  did  not  represent 
the  true  wishes  of  the  people,  besides  the  fact  that  it  had 
been  conducted  under  the  pressure  of  the  army  of  Argentina. 

Besides  the  5,000  Orientales  under  Artigas,  there  re- 
mained just  a  few  lukewarm  citizens,  as  are  found  every- 
where, who  prefer  a  life  of  ease  to  making  sacrifices  for 
principle,  in  most  cases  the  tranquil  and  peace-loving  resi- 
dents of  the  cities.  So,  what  the  group  of  Argentine  citizens 
assembled  at  the  Argentine  encampment  under  Argentine 
influence,  resolved,  was  not  the  opinion  of  the  Orientales, 
and  Artigas  did  right  in  protesting  as  he  did. 


34         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

This  disagreement  with  the  govGrnment  of  Buenos  Aires 
brought  about  the  separation  of  the  Orientales  from  the  be- 
sieging forces  on  the  21st  of  January,  1814.  The  rejection 
of  the  Deputies  sent  by  Artigas  in  1813,  was  the  first  demon- 
stration of  the  narrow-mindedness  of  the  Buenos  Aires 
Junta  or  Committee,  which  desired  complete  and  blind 
submission  to  its  mandates,  not  taking  into  account  the 
fact  that  they  themselves,  as  a  ruling  body,  were  not  a  direct 
product  of  the  popular  will,  but  of  a  small  coterie  self- 
styled  "Government  of  the  Revolution."  The  same  privilege 
belonged  to  Artigas,  who  was  publicly  known  as  the  leader 
of  the  Banda  Oriental.  The  government  of  Buenos  Aires 
could  not  object  to  the  Oriental  representation  as  designated 
by  the  leading  citizens  of  the  country,  while  the  members  of 
the  government  were  self-appointed,  and  they  exercised  au- 
thority without  consulting  the  various  provinces. 

The  city  of  Montevideo  surrendered  on  the  20th  of  June, 
1814,  with  5,000  men  and  300  cannon. 

Zorrilla  de  San  Martin,  in  speaking  of  the  revolutionary 
spirit  of  the  day,  said :  "Had  we  time  at  this  moment  to 
traverse  all  of  the  regions  of  America  and  acquaint  our- 
selves with  the  revolutionary  condition,  we  would  find  it 
useful.  The  sun  of  liberty  appears  to  be  sinking.  The 
triumvirate  government  of  Buenos  Aires,  without  thought 
or  fixed  purpose,  gropes  in  the  dark,  seeking  or  waiting  for 
the  man  who  never  comes,  and  who  should  be  recognized 
by  his  crown  of  gold.  The  Constituent  Assembly  cannot 
constitute  anything  as  it  lacks  abiding  faith.  It  does  not 
declare  independence,  and  much  less  will  it  adopt  any 
symbols,  coat-of-arms,  or  its  own  money,  but  neither  does 
it  abandon  the  Spanish  flag — the  royal  flag — for  it  is  bound 
to  the  ancient  Metropolis  by  a  traditional  monarchical 
spirit.  It  will  not  burn  down  the  fleet,  but  will  calk  it 
instead  for  the  probable  return  to  the  port  from  whence  it 
came.  It  will  enact  important  reforms,  but  within  the 
Spanish  organism.  It  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  con- 
stituency of  Cadiz  and  nothing  more.     We  need  not  hold 


REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  35 

it  responsible  for  this,  neither  shall  we  try  to  lessen  its 
renown.  It  was  to  be  expected,  it  is  humanlike.  Artigas, 
who  was  more  of  a  seer  than  a  sage,  dictated  his  instructions 
of  the  year  1813.  With  these  instructions  or  fundamentals, 
Artigas  with  the  same  confidence  that  led  Washington  and 
Jefferson,  drafted  the  chapters  of  the  South  American  gospel. 
At  no  place  in  austral  America  had  a  similar  declaration 
been  written." 

''Fernando  VII  will  continue  to  rule  morally  in  our  midst. 
Belgrano  and  Rivadavia  will  go  to  Europe  within  a  year 
to  recognize  Carlos  III.  There  they  will  meet  Sarratea, 
Argentine  General,  but  they  will  not  come  to  an  understand- 
ing and  only  failure  will  they  find.  Belgrano,  disappointed 
in  Europe,  will  plan  to  crown  a  descendant  of  one  of  the 
Incas  kings.  It  is  essential  that  he  be  a  king.  The  declara- 
tion of  independence  of  the  united  provinces  of  the  La  Plata 
will  be  effected  only  three  years  after,  on  July  9,  1816,  by 
the  Tucumiln  Congress,  and  this  will  be  the  glorious  day 
of  Argentina." 

''The  Tucumdn  declaration  was  made  nevertheless  after 
delays,  fear,  and  hesitation,  and  the  very  same  pr6ceres 
(illustrious  citizens)  who  sanctioned  it,  far  from  de- 
claring it  like  Artigas  as  the  substitution  of  the  colonial 
regime  on  a  republican  basis,  they  importuned  at  that  time 
and  subsequently  for  the  establishment  of  a  European 
dynasty  on  the  La  Plata." 

"What  would  the  noble  republic  of  Argentina  give  to-day, 
what  would  we,  all  the  sons  of  the  La  Plata  give,  to  see 
embodied  in  the  records  of  the  Tucum^in  Congress,  the 
instructions  of  Artigas?"    ("Epopeya  de  Artigas.") 

Artigas's  Instructions  of  1813 

Which  were  presented  by  the  Deputies  of  Eastern  Uruguay  before 
the  General  Constituent  Assembly  of  Buenos  Aires 

1st.  To  demand  the  declaration  of  absolute  independence 
for  these  colonies,  and  cessation  of  all  obligations  of  fidelity 
to  the  Crown  of  Spain. 


36         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

2nd.  To  accept  no  other  system  than  a  confederacy  call- 
ing for  a  covenant  of  reciprocity  with  the  provinces  which 
make  up  the  State. 

3rd.  To  promote  civil  and  religious  liberty  within  all  its 
conceivable  bounds. 

4tlL  That  each  province  establish  its  government  on  the 
above  basis  besides  that  of  the  Supreme  Government  of  the 
Nation. 

5th.  Both  national  and  provincial  governments  to  be 
divided  into  Legislative,  Executive,  and  Judicial  depart- 
ments, each  one  independent  of  the  other  in  authority. 

6th.  These  three  branches  are  never  to  be  united,  but 
will  act  independently  of  each  other. 

7th.  The  Supreme  Government  to  be  concerned  only  in 
general  State  matters.  Other  matters  to  be  handled 
specially  by  their  respective  provincial  government. 

8th.  The  territory  now  occupied  by  the  people  of  the 
eastern  coast  of  Uruguay,  as  far  as  the  fortress  of  Santa 
Teresa,  will  constitute  one  single  province  called  Provincia 
Oriental  (Eastern  Province). 

9th.  That  the  seven  Mission  villages,  also  those  of  Batovi, 
Santa  Tecla,  San  Rafael,  and  Tacuarembo,  which  are  occu- 
pied by  the  Portuguese,  to  be  reclaimed  when  the  proper 
time  comes,  and  as  territory  which  has  always  belonged  to 
this  province. 

10th.  That  this  province  for  the  present  enters  into  a 
separate  binding  alliance  of  friendship  with  each  one  of  the 
others  for  their  common  defense,  protection  of  their  liberty, 
and  for  their  mutual  and  general  happiness,  each  in  turn 
binding  itself  to  assist  each  one  of  the  others  against  all 
violence  or  attack  against  all  or  any  of  them  for  reason 
of  religion,  sovereignty,  commerce,  or  any  other  pretext 
whatever  it  might  be. 

11th.  That  this  province  shall  retain  its  sovereignty, 
liberty  and  independence,  all  powers,  jurisdiction,  and 
privileges  which  shall  not  expressly  be  delegated  by  the 
Confederacy  to  the  united  provinces  in  Congress  assembled. 


REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  37 

12th  and  13th.  The  ports  of  Maldonado  and  Colonia,  with 
free  access  for  the  imj^ortation  of  merchandise  and  the 
exportation  of  fruits  with  the  corresponding  custom-house 
duties. 

14th.  That  no  tax  or  duty  be  imposed  on  articles  exported 
from  one  province  to  another,  nor  any  preference  given 
through  regulation  of  commerce  or  revenue  to  the  ports 
of  one  province  over  those  of  another,  neither  are  the  vessels 
which  are  destined  from  this  province  to  another  to  be  com- 
pelled to  enter,  anchor,  or  pay  duty  in  still  another  province. 

15th.  Not  to  permit  the  enactment  of  any  law  for  this 
province  covering  property  of  foreigners  who  die  intestate, 
or  covering  fines  and  forfeitures  which  formerly  applied  to 
the  King,  or  on  territory  of  the  latter,  as  long  as  it  does  not 
by  ordinance  determine  to  what  funds  to  have  same  applied 
to,  as  the  only  department  legally  entitled  from  its  economi- 
cal jurisdiction. 

16th.  That  this  province  should  have  its  territorial  con- 
stitution, with  the  privilege  of  sanctioning  the  general  con- 
stitution of  the  United  Provinces,  as  would  be  drafted  by 
the  Constituent  Assembly. 

17th.  That  this  province  shall  have  the  right  to  increase 
its  regiments  to  the  number  required,  name  the  officers  of 
companies,  regulate  its  militia  for  the  protection  of  its 
liberty,  not  violating  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and 
possess  arms. 

18th.  That  military  despotism  be  duly  and  completely 
annihilated  by  constitutional  measures  that  shall  insure 
the  inviolability  of  the  people's  sovereignty. 

19th.  That  the  seat  of  government  of  the  United  Provinces 
be  of  necessity  and  indispensably  situated  outside  the  city 
of  Buenos  Aires. 

20th.  The  Constitution  shall  guarantee  to  the  United 
Provinces  a  republican  form  of  government,  and  shall  insure 
each  one  against  all  domestic  violence,  usurpation  of  its 
rights  and  liberty  and  sovereign  security. 

The  above  are  the  essential  articles  of  the  proposed  con- 


38         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

stitution,  which  Artigas,  as  leader  of  the  Uruguayans  and 
the  people  of  Uruguay,  wanted  as  their  Federal  Constitu- 
tion for  the  United  Provinces  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  These 
represent  the  principles  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  which  were  later  adopted  by  the  Argen- 
tine Constitution  of  1816. 

Had  these  principles  been  accepted  since  1813,  we  would 
not  have  had  to  regret  the  bloody  civil  wars  between  the 
Orientales  and  the  PorteSos  (residents  of  Buenos  Aires), 
and  between  Artigas  and  the  Directorate  of  Buenos  Aires, 
and  which  acceptance  would  have  made  the  Uruguayan 
Republic  an  integral  part  of  the  United  Provinces  of  to-day. 

The  Deputies  of  Eastern  Uruguay  were  not  admitted  to 
the  Constituent  Congress  or  Assembly  for  the  reason  that 
the  Election  Ordinance  proclaimed  by  the  Triumvirate, 
which  exercised  the  executive  power  of  the  nation  by  its 
Article  No.  5,  prohibited  the  Deputies  from  receiving  im- 
perative orders  as  national  deputies.  None  of  the  provinces 
had  taken  part  in  the  preparation  of  this  ordinance,  as  the 
Triumvirate,  following  Spanish  practice,  really  believed 
that  the  Buenos  Aires  government,  as  the  heir  of  the  Vice- 
roys, could  dictate  measures  of  a  general  character  without 
the  consent  or  opinion  of  the  different  settlements  constitut- 
ing the  nation.  The  government  of  the  Triumvirate  was 
aware  of  the  opinion  of  Artigas,  as  he  had  expressed  it  to 
General  Rondeau,  to  the  effect  that  it  was  his  aim  to  dis- 
regard the  interference  of  Buenos  Aires  in  the  Oriental 
province  soon  after  the  termination  of  the  war. 

Artigas  so  arranged  the  Instructions  as  to  provide  meas- 
ures to  secure  the  autonomy  of  the  Oriental  province,  while 
the  Porteiios  took  measures  to  defeat  his  purpose.  It  is 
perhaps  surprising  that  Artigas  should  have  given  instruc- 
tions to  the  Deputies;  but,  in  fact,  it  was  nothing  out  of 
the  ordinary,  as  it  was  a  case  wherein  the  people  were  in 
accord  with  their  leader  as  well  as  with  the  Deputies,  and 
they  were  all  in  favor  of  the  autonomy  of  their  province. 
The  idea  of  autonomy  had  been  fostered  in  Antigas's  mind 


REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  39 

since  1811,  when,  in  a  communication  to  the  Paraguayan 
government,  he  stated :  '^The  Banda  Oriental  is  the  sister, 
the  ally,  of  Buenos  Aires,  hut  it  has  its  own  boundaries, 
which  have  been  pointed  out  by  nature/' 

The  War  Between  Orientales  and  Portends 

The  war  between  the  Orientales  and  the  Portenos — the 
Uruguayans  and  the  residents  of  Buenos  Aires  respectively 
— broke  out  soon  after  the  seizure  of  Montevideo.  This 
war  was  provoked  by  the  intolerance  of  the  people  of  Buenos 
Aires  toward  the  spirit  and  inclination  shown  locally  among 
the  Orientales.  The  Argentine  provinces  of  Santa  Fe, 
Cordoba,  Entre  Rios,  and  Corrientes,  on  accepting  the  pro- 
tection offered  by  Artigas,  seceded  from  Argentina.  Shortly 
after  the  secession  of  these  provinces,  Director  Posadas 
started  peace  negotiations  with  Artigas,  and  on  the  17th 
of  August  drafted  a  decree  revoking  a  former  one  fixing  a 
price  on  Artigas's  head,  acclaiming  him  in  the  later  decree 
a  faithful  servant  of  the  mother  country,  bestowing  upon 
him  the  rank  of  Colonel,  and  conferring  on  him  the  office  of 
General  Commander  of  the  Oriental  campaign. 

Peace  did  not  last  very  long,  for  on  the  1st  of  January, 
1815,  the  forces  of  the  Orientales,  under  Rivera,  met  those 
of  Buenos  Aires  at  Guayabos,  under  the  command  of  Dor- 
rego,  where  the  latter  were  completely  routed.  It  was  an 
encounter  of  brother  against  brother,  as  had  been  that  of 
Carreras  and  O'Higgins  at  Maipo  on  August  26,  1815,  and 
that  of  Bolivar  and  Castillos,  at  Cartagena,  on  the  12th  of 
December,  1814. 

The  government  of  Buenos  Aires  having  changed  hands, 
orders  were  given  for  the  dislodgment  of  the  Argentine 
forces  from  Montevideo,  which  was  effected,  and  the  with- 
drawal of  the  Argentine  troops  completed  on  the  25th  of 
February  following.  The  city  was  then  occupied  by  the  forces 
of  the  Orientales,  who  hoisted  the  first  patriotic  flag  on  the 
La  Plata  River,  which  has  been  called  the  Flag  of  Artigas, 
consisting  of  one  white  between  two  blue  stripes,  and  a  red 


40         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

stripe  diagonally  crossing  the  other  three.  The  first  na- 
tional coat-of-arms  of  Uruguay  was  adopted  the  same  year. 
This  emblem  had  as  its  center  a  balance — symbol  of  equality 
— and  beyond,  the  radiant  sun  around  which  was  the  motto : 
'^With  liberty  neither  do  I  offend  nor  fear/' 

Following  the  fall  of  the  Argentine  government  under 
Alvear,  a  provisional  law  was  enacted  on  May  5,  1815,  which 
directed  the  installation  of  the  Tucumdn  Congress,  which 
proclaimed  the  Independence  of  Argentina. 

Discord  Among  the  Leaders  op  Argentina 

The  deep-rooted  differences  between  Artigas  and  the  gov- 
ernment of  Buenos  Aires  had  become  pronounced  even 
among  the  leaders  of  "Mayo"  (Argentina's  month  of  Inde- 
pendence), as  is  described  by  Mitre,  the  reputed  Argentine 
historian,  in  his  story  of  Belgrano,  as  follows :  "Hardly  had 
a  year  elapsed  when  the  revolutionary  arena  was  destitute 
of  its  most  renowned  leaders — Moreno,  the  inspiration  of 
the  revolution,  died  while  at  sea;  Alberti,  member  of  the 
Mayo  commission,  died  before  he  saw  his  work  completed; 
Berruti  and  French,  the  two  political  orators  of  the  cele- 
brated 25th  of  May  (Independence  Day),  had  been  ex- 
patriated as  of  the  criminal  class;  Rodriguez  Pena,  the 
energetic  force  of  the  preaching  campaign  which  preceded 
the  revolution ;  Ascu6naga,  who  had  so  efficiently  cooperated 
in  its  triumph ;  Vieytes,  the  indefatigable  companion  of  Bel- 
grano in  the  tasks  that  prepared  the  change  of  1810;  all 
of  them  ignominiously  persecuted,  and  whose  friends  of  other 
days  referred  to  them  as  frenzied  fanatics,  frantic  demo- 
crats, expatriates,  moral  perverts,  blood-thirsty  plunderers, 
infamous  traitors,  rebels,  low-lived,  cynical,  seditious  in- 
surgents, poison  ivylike,  and  corruptors  of  the  people." 

Zorrilla  de  San  Martin  says :  "That  struggle  will  continue 
indefinitely,  it  will  continue  in  a  rage  and  implacable,  and 
the  man  will  not  be  there  until  the  tyrant  appears ;  revolu- 
tions, mutinies,  tumultuous  disorders,  political  conspiracies 
will  follow  each  other  without  interruption  within  that 


REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  41 

chaotic  nucleus  where  the  political  rulers  will  rise  and  fall 
— thanks  for  this,  as  in  many  cases,  to  intrigue — betraying 
the  lofty'  interests  of  the  South  American  Independence. 

"It  is  not  then  possible  that  the  capitan  of  blandengues 
(old-fashioned  regiment),  the  man  of  sincerity,  Artigas, 
will  be  a  party  to  it,  nor  will  he  swear  thereto  the  uncondi- 
tional submission  of  his  people  to  any  faction.  He  is  the 
order ;  he  comes  to  ask  for  means  to  liberate  his  country,  and 
will  accept  whatever  means  are  given  him  and  from  whomso- 
ever he  receives  them,  because  he  is  ready  to  liberate  it  with 
those  men,  without  those  men,  and  against  those  men  should 
it  become  necessary." 

These  remarks  of  two  historians  of  the  La  Plata  give 
a  complete  idea  of  the  grievous  discords  which  held  sway 
within  the  element  that  directed  the  revolution,  and  they 
also  explain  sufficiently  well  the  state  of  anarchy  which 
prevailed  among  the  governing  heads,  just  as  it  has  hap- 
pened during  momentous  events  which  have  revolutionized 
the  world.  Add  to  this  the  want  of  political  education  and 
of  party  discipline,  as  well  as  ideas  of  assumed  authority 
inherited  from  the  mother  country  and  incompatible  with 
political  liberty,  and  you  will  form  some  conception  of 
politics  at  that  time.  A  group  of  well-meaning  citizens,  yet 
arrogant  and  ill-prepared  to  govern,  imposing  their  will 
on  the  great  majority  of  the  citizens  who  were  not  heard  in 
any  manner. 

The  haughtiness  of  Artigas  is  explained  in  the  fact  that  he 
was  the  leader  of  the  Orientales,  the  most  fertile  land  of  war- 
riors, the  capital  of  which — Montevideo — proudly  displayed 
the  motto,  ''Muy  fiel  y  reconquistadora  ciudad,"  and  which 
had  been  and  still  was  the  best  fortified  place  of  the  Rio  de  la 
Plata,  and  the  rival  of  Buenos  Aires. 

Artigas  and  the  Orientales  could  not  be  mere  satellites  of 
the  Committee  which  had  assumed  power.  "The  Banda 
Oriental  has  boundaries,  she  is  the  sister,  the  ally,  to  Buenos 
Aires,"  Artigas  had  said  in  his  note  of  December  7,  1811, 
which  was  read  publicly  at  the  City  of  Asunci6n  in  Para- 


42         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

guay,  amid  the  acclamations  of  the  people,  and  adding:  "The 
Orientales  have  sworn  an  irreconcilable  hatred  to  all  forms 
of  tj^ranuy,  and  have  sworn  not  to  lay  down  their  arms 
until  every  foreigner  leaves  the  country." 

Artigas,  desirous  of  securing  autonomy  for  his  loved 
Provincia  Oriental,  wished  to  embody  in  his  instructions  a 
federal  constitution  patterned  after  that  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  while  on  the  other  hand,  individuals  at 
the  head  of  the  Buenos  Aires  government,  descendants  of 
good  Spanish  stock,  self-constituted  authorities,  could  not 
conceive  any  other  plan  except  one  on  the  Spanish  style, 
with  all  the  exaggerated  ideas  of  a  unitary  and  despotic 
centralism  as  formulated  by  Carlos  V. 

The   Army   of   Argentina   Rebels   Against   the   Buenos 

Aires  Government_,  Installing  General  Rondeau 

at  the  Head 

General  Alvear,  not  through  his  meritorious  accom- 
plishments— he  being  a  very  young  man  at  the  time — but 
through  the  intrigues  which  were  in  vogue  at  the  time,  was 
appointed  General  of  the  Army  of  Peru,  but  the  army 
leaders  of  Alto  Peru  refused  to  recognize  him  as  such,  there- 
by establishing  a  regrettable  example  of  insubordination. 
The  Army  of  Peru  rose  up  in  rebellion  against  Alvear  on 
the  19th  of  December,  1814,  demanding  the  continuance  of 
Rondeau.  Director  Posadas,  in  view  of  the  disobedience 
shown  his  government,  renounced  his  authority  on  March 
9,  1815,  but  against  all  discretion  the  Constituent  Assembly 
entitled  Logia  (lodge)  Lautaro,  which  was  a  sort  of  political 
masonic  lodge,  named  Alvear  as  Director,  whose  position 
became  indefensible,  since  his  defeat  by  Artigas  with  Do- 
rrego  as  Lieutenant,  and  since  the  army  disregarded  him. 

In  the  meantime,  Belgrano  and  Rivadavia  were  searching 
Europe  for  a  Prince  to  occupy  the  throne  of  the  Provincias 
Unidas  (United  Provinces)  independently  of  Spain.  The 
monarchial  scheme  was  shared  by  San  Martin,  Belgrano, 
Rivadavia,    Sarratea,    and    Puyrred6n.     Director   Posadas 


REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  43 

comment  was,  "What  difference  does  it  make  whether  the 
ruler-to-be  be  called  Desk,  Table  or  Bench,  Emperor  or 
King?" 

Following  the  battle  of  Guayabos,  the  government  of 
Buenos  Aires  had  sent  ambassadors  to  arrange  terms  of 
peace  with  Artigas,  peace  being  endorsed  by  Artigas  under 
condition  that  the  City  of  Montevideo  be  surrendered  and 
the  forces  withdrawn,  which  was  accepted  by  Buenos  Aires, 
and  its  forces  evacuating  on  February  27,  1815,  as  before 
stated. 

Alvear  would  not  give  in,  and  signed  a  communication 
which  placed  the  provinces  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  under 
the  authority  of  England,  but  this  note,  which  was  to  have 
been  delivered  by  Minister  Garcia  to  Strangford,  failed  to 
be  delivered,  Garcia  limiting  himself  to  state  to  the 
English  Minister  that  the  Provinces  of  the  La  Plata  had 
depended  on  the  support  of  England  in  order  to  save  them- 
selves from  falling  into  the  clutches  of  Spain.  A  subsequent 
revolution  in  Buenos  Aires  destroyed  the  power  of  Alvear, 
who  sought  refuge  on  an  English  battleship,  and  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  dissolved. 

The  United  Provinces  of  the  La  Plata,  in  congress  as- 
sembled at  Tucuman,  declared  their  independence  on  the 
9th  of  July,  1816. 

The  Last  Portuguese  Invasion 

The  Portuguese  invaded  territory  of  the  Oriental  province 
with  an  army  of  10,000  men,  commanded  by  Lecor,  for  the 
purpose  of  expelling  Artigas  and  taking  possession  of  the 
territory  comprising  the  Banda  Oriental.  The  Oriental 
forces,  though  weakened,  offered  stubborn  resistance,  and 
Director  Puyrredon  intimated  to  the  invader  that  the  terri- 
tory should  be  abandoned,  and  proposed  to  Artigas  his 
assistance,  on  condition  that  the  Oriental  Division  render 
obedience  to  the  Directorate  and  to  the  Congress,  and  that 
the  Argentine  flag  be  hoisted  instead.  Artigas  most  em- 
phatically opposed  the  proposition,  ordered  the  Argentine 


44         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

document  to  be  consigned  to  the  flames,  and  started  prepara- 
tions for  the  defense  of  his  country.  We  quote  from  Ar- 
tigas's  note,  in  answer  to  the  Argentine  proposal,  the  follow- 
ing: ^'^The  leader  of  the  Orientales  has  at  all  times  demon- 
strated that  he  loves  his  country  too  well  to  sacrifice  this 
noble  patrimony  for  the  contemptible  price  of  necessity/' 
He  gathered  4,000  men,  who  were  unable  to  check  the  ad- 
vance of  the  Portuguese  into  Montevideo,  which  had  been 
abandoned  by  its  small  patriotic  garrison. 

During  the  rule  of  Puyrredon,  the  political  parties  were 
divided  into  Unitario  and  Federal.  The  Federal's  preten- 
sion was  that  the  province  of  Buenos  Aires,  which  yielded 
larger  returns,  should  not  be  under  the  national  govern- 
ment, but  that  it  be  governed  under  autonomy,  or  in  other 
words,  he  was  asking  for  just  the  same  conditions  that  the 
Banda  Oriental  of  Uruguay  wanted.  Among  the  leaders 
of  the  Federal  Party  were  Dorrego,  Agrelo,  General  French, 
the  Anchorenas,  and  other  influential  personages.  They 
had  as  their  organ  a  daily  called  La  Cronica,  where  it  was 
claimed  that  the  Director  Puyrredon  was  implicated  with 
the  Portuguese  who  had  invaded  Uruguay.  This  expose 
gave  an  excuse  to  Puyrredon  to  have  them  deported  to  the 
Antilles,  together  with  the  Oriental  patriots.  Colonels 
Pagola  and  Valdenegros,  and  other  men  of  distinction.  On 
arriving  at  Baltomire,  the  deported  patriots  issued  a  mani- 
festo reading:  ''What  is  this  crime  of  ours  if  among  the 
many  facts  that  confront  us  we  have  believed  that  the  gov- 
ernment is  implicated  in  schemes  of  perfidy  and  treachery, 
and  that  it  had  called  and  entreated  the  Portuguese  to  in- 
vade the  Oriental  territory."  It  is  not  strange  therefore 
that  Artigas  should  have  believed  Puyrredon  to  be  a  traitor. 

The  Orientales  Abandoned  by  the  Argentinos 

After  several  engagements  with  the  Portuguese,  Artigas 
proceeded  to  Entre  Rios  to  secure  reinforcements  in  Argen- 
tina, but  instead  of  assistance  he  was  received  by  the  chief- 
tain Ramirez,  his  former  prot6g6,  in  a  hostile  and  warlike 


EEGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  45 

attitude,  and  who,  in  a  consequent  encounter  with  Artigas, 
defeated  the  latter,  who  was  compelled  to  withdraw  into 
Paraguay. 

Artigas,  an  unnoticed  hero,  was  slandered  by  nearly  all 
the  Argentine  historians,  but  his  instructions  of  1813,  which 
were  newly  brought  to  light  in  1868,  when  they  were  found 
in  the  city  of  Asuncion,  together  with  other  documents  bear- 
ing his  signature,  place  the  leader  of  the  Orientales  among 
the  first  statesmen  of  America,  both  in  thought  and  action. 
(Refer  to  the  Book,  "Instructions  of  the  Year  1813,"  pub- 
lished by  Miranda,  Libreria  Nacional,  Montevideo,  1916.) 

Opinion    Given   by    President   Monroe's    Commission   to 
Argentina  in  1818  Regarding  Artigas 

The  testimony  given  by  the  United  States  Government 
Commission,  which  was  sent  to  Argentina  during  the  Monroe 
administration  to  study  the  political  situation  at  the  time 
the  Argentine  government  asked  of  the  great  northern  re- 
public to  recognize  the  independence  of  the  United  Provinces 
of  the  La  Plata,  proves  the  truth  of  our  statements.  The 
members  of  this  commission  who  went  to  Argentina  aboard 
the  frigate  "Congress"  in  1818,  were  Cesar  A  Rodney,  John 
Graham,  and  Theodore  Bland.  President  Monroe,  on  ex- 
plaining to  the  United  States  Congress  the  purpose  of  this 
commission,  officially  requested  that  provision  be  made  for 
the  necessary  funds  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  said  com- 
mission. It  was  at  the  memorable  session  of  the  United 
States  Congress  in  March  of  1818,  during  the  five  days 
from  March  21  to  28,  which  were  exclusively  devoted  to  the 
Argentine  matter,  that  Clay  was  inspired  to  express  the 
following  sentiment:  "Artigas  appears  to  be  in  truth,  a 
republican,  a  man  of  strong  mind  and  strong  understand- 
ing, brave,  active,  intelligent,  devoted  to  his  country,  and 
possessing  the  entire  confidence  of  the  people  of  whom  he 
is  chief."  (Smith  of  Maryland,  U.  S.  A.  Congress,  March 
28,  1818.) 


46         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

It  was  at  the  most  critical  period  of  the  struggles  of 
Artigas  and  his  brave  gauchos,  trapped  as  they  were  by 
their  enemies,  that  the  North  American  commission  arrived. 

Clay  maintained  that  instead  of  a  commission,  a  govern- 
ment representative  should  be  sent,  and  that  the  independ- 
ence of  the  Spanish-American  republics  should  be  recognized. 
The  government's  attitude  was  to  defer  recognition  until  re- 
ceipt of  report,  to  which  Clay  answered  by  quoting  Washing- 
ton's remarks:  "Born  in  a  land  of  freedom,  my  fervent 
prayers  and  best  wishes  are  irresistibly  roused  wherever  I  see 
an  oppressed  nation  break  the  barriers  that  separate  her 
from  freedom."  "The  United  States  of  America,  Clay  con- 
tinued, "must  not  wait  for  the  Kings  to  recognize  the  only 
other  republic  besides  ours,  in  order  to  do  likewise.  If  the 
health  of  the  European  monarchies  depends  upon  the  death 
of  the  republics  of  America,  then  the  security  of  the  Ameri- 
can republic  must  not  be  restrained  by  the  others  born  at 
her  side."  Clay  concluded  his  oration  by  saying:  ''The  only 
champion  of  democracy  in  these  regions  is  the  hrave  and 
chivalrous  Artigas" 

In  his  report  to  President  Monroe,  Commissioner  Rodney 
sent  extended  and  detailed  information  covering  all  the 
events  which  took  place  in  the  La  Plata  region  since  its 
discovery,  including  all  documents  obtained  in  Buenos  Aires, 
the  central  point  of  the  territory  dominated  by  the  enemies 
of  Artigas,  to  whom  the  Argentine  historians  referred  as 
the  bandit,  captain  of  smugglers,  highwayman,  blood- 
thirsty bandit,  and  other  similar  not  endearing  terms.  The 
Rodney  report  ends  with  this  statement :  "It  is  fair  to  add, 
nevertheless,  that  General  Artigas  is  considered  by  persons 
worthy  of  belief,  to  be  a  consistent  supporter  of  the  inde- 
pendence of  his  country.  A  decisive  opinion  on  such  a 
delicate  question  could  be  hardly  expected  from  me  inas- 
much as  my  position  does  not  permit  me  full  view  of  the 
condition  of  the  territory  as  a  whole.  I  have  not  yet  had 
the  satisfaction  of  a  formal  interview  with  General  Artigas, 
who  is  unquestionably  a  man  possessing  singular  and  ex- 


REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  47 

ceptional  talents.  But  were  I  to  dare  conjecture,  I  do  not 
believe  it  impossible  that  in  this  as  well  as  in  the  majority 
of  local  disputes  there  is  fault  on  both  sides.  It  is  to  be 
lamented  that  they  are  in  open  hostility."  Commissioner 
Graham  said:  "General  Artigas  and  his  followers  claim 
that  the  intervention  of  the  Buenos  Aires  government  is  to 
dominate  them  and  to  compel  them  to  submit  to  conditions 
which  will  rob  them  of  the  privileges  of  self-government 
which  they  believe  they  are  entitled  to  demand.  They  state 
that  they  are  desirous  of  joining  the  people  of  the  western 
bank  of  the  river,  hut  not  in  such  a  loay  as  to  he  left  siihject 
to  the  tyranny  of  Buenos  Aires.  This  war  has  had  as  its 
origin  a  combination  of  causes,  wherein  perhaps  both  fac- 
tions have  something  to  complain  of  and  something  for 
which  to  repent.  Mutual  interests  demand  their  union,  but 
much  discretion  and  moderation  are  needed  to  secure  it ;  in 
fact,  a  great  deal  more  than  what  can  at  this  moment  be 
expected  from  the  irritated  spirit  of  some  of  the  leading 
personages  of  both  sides." 

At  the  same  time  that  the  American  envoys  were  writing 
these  reports,  Puyrredon  wrote  to  San  Martin  as  follows: 
"Artigas  has  been  completely  routed  by  the  Portuguese  and 
compelled  to  seek  shelter  in  the  forests  with  very  few  of 
his  bandits."  San  Martin  had  sent  two  messengers  from 
Chile  with  instructions  to  go  to  the  Artigas  camp  for  con- 
ciliation, but  this  move  was  unfavorably  received  by  Puyrre- 
don, who  reproached  San  Martin  for  having  interfered,  and 
ordered  the  messengers  to  return  from  Mendoza  without 
interviewing  Artigas. 

The  report  of  the  third  commissioner,  Mr.  Bland,  says: 
"Artigas  put  the  plans  of  the  Buenos  Aires  government  to 
the  test,  demanding  that  the  Banda  Oriental  he  considered 
and  treated  as  a  state.  This  demand  was  considered  at 
Buenos  Aires  as  the  most  irrational  criminal  offense  and 
defiant  rehellion  against  the  only  lawful  government  of  the 
United  Provinces,  which  government,  according  to  its  doc- 
trine, emhraced  all  of  the  viceroyship  of  which  Buenos 


48         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

Aires  had  always  been  and  by  right  was  then  and  should 
continue  to  he  the  capital  whence  all  authority  should 
emanate.  Artigas  opposed  and  denounced  this  as  a  mani- 
festation of  an  unjust  and  arbitrary  spirit  of  domination  on 
the  part  of  Buenos  Aires,  and  to  which  he  could  not  in  any 
manner  submit.  Artigas,  though  driven  first  in  one  direc- 
tion and  then  in  another,  attacked  by  the  Portuguese  on 
one  side  and  by  the  patriots  of  Buenos  Aires  on  the  other, 
and  on  guard  against  an  unexpected  attack  by  the 
Spaniards,  has  the  entire  population  in  a  state  of  submis- 
sion to  the  power  of  his  will.  It  may  be  said  that  Artigas 
and  his  gauchos  valiantly  defend  their  homes,  their  country, 
and  their  rights,  and  that  the  King  of  Portugal  plans  to 
enlarge  his  domains  by  adding  the  province  to  Brazil."  In 
speaking  of  the  peasants  of  the  province  Oriental,  Bland 
says :  ^'They  are  the  most  formidable  guerillas  that  have  ever 
lived."  They  rank  second  to  hone  in  physical  prowess,  and 
the  deeds  of  valor  ascribed  to  them  by  far  surpass  those  of 
the  Parthes,  the  Escitas,  and  the  Cossacks  of  the  Don. 

"Revolutionary  America  had  in  the  culmination  of  its 
justifiable  revolution,  and  from  the  very  beginning,  one  true 
adherent  and  armed  supporter,  Artigas.  Yet  all  is  not 
known,  except  by  the  people  who  guard  within  their  soul 
the  glory  of  that  tradition,  for  it  happens  that  some  of  the 
most  interesting  and  appealing  facts  about  the  La  Plata 
revolution  have  not  either  been  written  or  propagated.  This 
came  to  me  as  I  read  the  excellent  resume,  written  in  such 
clear  and  precise  style,  which  the  illustrious  noble,  Rufino 
Blanco  Fombona,  presented  at  the  Madrid  conferences,  re- 
garding the  origin  of  contemporary  America." 

"It  is  locally  admitted  that  the  revolution  of  the  extreme 
south  originated  and  was  maintained  in  a  monarchial  atmos- 
phere, which  appears  to  be  relatively  true,  as  no  mention 
is  made  of  Artigas,  instigator  of  democracy,  harassed  and 
pursued  like  a  beast  of  the  jungle,  by  the  monarchial 
oligarchy  of  the  Posadas  and  the  Puyrredons,  and  then 
slandered  in  transient  history  by  writers  inheriting  the 


EEGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  49 

hatred  of  monarchial  politici.  A  fundamental  revision  of 
comparative  worth  is  a  new  task  on  the  history  of  this 
region  of  the  south,  and  when  this  revision  has  been  com- 
pleted and  certain  ghastly  and  mediocre  figures  have  passed 
to  a  secondary  plane,  one  figure  will  continue  to  grow  to 
gigantic  proportions  as  a  figure  worthy  of  America,  the 
chieftain  with  lionlike  grasp  who  in  1813  hoisted  the  flag 
of  integral  organization  and  clearly  defined  republicanism — 
which  Bolivar  also  took  up  soon  after,  though  in  a  less 
fervent  form,  in  opposition  to  the  monarchial  program  of 
San  Martin."  (From  Jos6  Enrique  Rodo,  in  Motives  de 
Proteo.) 

Ignorance  regarding  the  true  history  of  the  La  Plata,  and 
ignorance  as  to  the  true  part  played  by  Artigas,  are  the  two 
main  reasons  for  the  many  errors  which  we  find  in  books 
of  American  history.  In  a  book  recently  published  in  the 
City  of  New  York  (Appleton,  1918),  and  written  by  Don 
Enrique  Santibdiiez,  former  instructor  of  universal  history 
in  the  preparatory  school  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  we  read  in 
substance  the  following :  "Artigas  represented  in  that  chaos 
the  chieftain  whom  we  very  frequently  find  in  Latin  America, 
who  does  not  recede  from  any  act  of  brigandage  or  false 
report,  provided  he  can  dominate  his  unfortunate  country." 
This  Mexican  historian  honestly  believes  that  Artigas  was 
another  Pancho  Villa.  He  is  a  new  grave-digger  for  the 
Oriental  hero  who,  to  quote  Mitre,  the  Argentine  historian, 
"Has  been  buried  definitively."  "We  two,"  wrote  Mitre 
to  Lopez  (another  Argentine  historian),  after  a  dispute, 
"have  shown  the  same  predilection  for  the  great  men  and 
the  same  repulsion  for  the  disorganized  barbarians,  like 
Artigas,  whom  we  have  buried  historically/' 

But  the  historically  dead  one  returns  to  life,  and  an 
aureole  of  glory, which  no  other  Platenese  caudillo  (chieftain) 
or  hero  possesses,  now  crowns  his  head,  for  the  reason  that  he 
was  the  only  democrat  of  his  time  in  the  La  Plata  region,  and 
the  only  one  who  did  not  doubt  the  ultimate  triumph  of  the 
republic. 


50         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

The  Orientales  Take  Up  Arms  Against  Brazil 

The  Banda  Oriental  was  annexed  to  Brazil,  under  the  title 

of  Provincia  Cisplatina,  thus  forming  part  of  the  kingdom 

of  Portugal.     Soon   after,   on  the  21st  of 

Invasion  of  Thirty- 
three— 1825—  September,  1822,  Brazil  declared  its  inde- 
pendence from  Portugal,  with  the  usual 
result — a  conflict  between  the  two  nations,  the  Brazilians 
being  compelled,  under  their  leader,  Lecor,  to  withdraw 
from  Montevideo  to  Canelones. 

The  Oriental  Knights,  members  of  a  patriotic  society,  sent 
a  commission  to  Buenos  Aires  to  propose  the  incorporation 
of  a  Banda  Oriental  with  the  United  Provinces,  and  so  pre- 
sented themselves  before  the  cabinet  minister,  Rivadavia. 
The  latter  remonstrated,  stating  that  he  could  not  accept 
the  proposal  until  presented  by  a  regularly  constituted 
government.  This  provoked  Lavalleja,  future  leader  of 
the  famous  Thirty-three,  to  revolt.  But  on  being  pursued, 
and  not  having  any  resources  at  his  command,  he  was 
unable  to  offer  resistance,  and  therefore  migrated  into 
Argentina. 

On  the  20th  of  October  following,  the  Cabildo  of  Monte- 
video decided  to  enact  the  law  exacted  by  the  Buenos  Aires 
government,  and  so  the  neighbor  communities  in  meeting 
assembled  unanimously  declared :  "That  the  province  as 
a  whole,  and  particularly  the  capital,  placed  itself  freely 
and  of  its  own  free  will  under  the  protection  of  the  Buenos 
Aires  government,  that  they  considered  the  act  of  incor- 
poration with  the  Portuguese  monarchy  null,  criminal,  and 
arbitrary — the  act  having  been  sanctioned  by  the  Congress 
of  1821,  composed  largely  of  employees  under  the  pay  of  the 
Portuguese  King,  and  that  the  province  of  Oriental  of  Uru- 
guay did  not  belong,  and  should  never  belong,  to  any  other 
power,  state,  or  nation  than  that  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  of  which 
it  had  been  and  still  was  a  part." 

Three  days  after  the  issuance  of  the  above  declaration, 
the  Portuguese  General,  in  compliance  with  instructions 


i       EEGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  51 

received  from  Lisbon,  abandoned  the  town  to  Lecor,  and 
he  himself  set  sail  for  Portugal. 

The  patriots  Lavalleja,  Manuel  Oribe,  Zufriategui,  and 
others  got  together  and  jointly  entered  a  binding  agreement 
to  invade  the  province  of  Oriental,  and  accordingly  invaded 
the  territory  on  April  19,  1825,  on  the  Agraciada  coast. 
These  venturesome  heroes  were  thirty-three  in  number.  They 
swore  on  their  knees  before  the  flag  to  liberate  their  native 
land  or  die  in  the  attempt.  The  motto  inscribed  on  the 
banner  of  liberty,  which  Lavalleja  caused  to  wave,  read : 
"Liberty  or  Death." 

The  group  of  patriots  under  this  banner  was  augmented 
by  the  forces  of  Rivera  and  others,  and  on  the  seventh  of 
May  laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Montevideo.  On  the  20th  of 
August  the  National  Assembly  convened  at  Florida  and 
named  Lavalleja  Captain  General.  On  the  25th  of  August 
the  said  assembly  declared  the  independence  of  the  Pro- 
vincia  Oriental  and  its  incorporation  with  the  Argentine 
provinces,  and  so  advised  the  government  of  Buenos 
Aires. 

On  the  20th  of  the  following  September,  the  Orientales, 
under  Rivera,  defeated  the  Brazilian  forces  at  Riucon  de 
las  Gallinas.  General  Lavalleja  routed  another  Brazilian 
army  at  the  battle  of  Sarandi,  under  the  cry,  "Shoulder 
Carbine,  Sabre  in  Hand,"  which  triumph  was  enthusias- 
tically celebrated  in  Buenos  Aires. 

The  Argentine  Congress  declared  the  incorporation  of 
the  Provincia  Oriental  with  the  United  Provinces,  and 
demanded  its  release  from  the  governmental  authorities 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  This  brought  about  Brazil's  declaration 
of  war,  which  the  Argentine  government  answered  by  the  in- 
tervention of  its  army  in  crossing  the  Uruguay,  thence 
marching  north  and  encamping  on  the  plains  of  Ytuzaingo. 
The  combined  forces  of  Argentinos  and  Orientales  consisted 
of  7,000  men,  against  9,000  Brazilians,  including  3,600  Aus- 
trians  sent  by  the  Emperor  of  Austria  as  a  nucleus  for  the 
Brazilians'  forces,  to  his  political  associate,  the  Emperor 


52         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

of  Brazil,  the  Austrian  General,  Bauer.    There  were  many 
Austrian  oflScers,  members  of  the  Brazilian  Stafif. 

The  republican  forces  were  rewarded  with  victory,  and 
in  due  time  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed,  wherein  England 
took  part  by  guaranteeing  the  complete  independence  of 
the  Provincia  Oriental  on  the  27th  of  August,  1828.  The 
Uruguayan  Constitution  was  sworn  to  on  the  18th  of  July, 
1830,  and  recently  amended  on  March  1,  1919. 

The  War  Against  the  Despot  Rosas 

General  Rivera,  who  was  elected  the  first  President, 
served  four  years,  and  President  Oribe,  elected  to  succeed 
_    „     „  him,  did  not  serve  out  his  term,  which  was 

The  New  Troy  .         '  ' 

interrupted  by  a  revolution,  and  Oribe 
obliged  to  resign  the  presidency.  Rivera,  who  again  occu- 
pied the  presidential  chair,  declared  war  in  1839  against 
the  despot  Rosas  of  Buenos  Aires. 

Oribe,  on  giving  up  the  presidency,  placed  himself  at  the 
disposal  of  the  tyrant,  who  was  then  ruling  as  an  absolute 
king.  Oribe,  becoming  Rosas'  sword,  relentlessly  per- 
secuted the  Unitarians,  enemies  of  the  latter.  After 
defeating  all  of  Rosas's  enemies,  Oribe,  who  was  an  able 
general,  came  to  Montevideo  with  a  powerful  army  of  14,000 
men,  besieging  the  city  on  the  16th  of  February,  1843.  The 
siege  lasted  for  nine  years,  and  gained  for  the  city  the  title 
of  "Nueva  Troya."  During  this  prolonged  siege,  the  par- 
tisans of  the  despot  Rosas  dominated  the  whole  of  the 
Oriental  campaign.  Montevideo  was  the  retreat  of  the  most 
illustrious  Argentine  enemies  of  Rosas,  the  "Unitarios" 
(Unitarians),  among  them  Mitre,  Paz,  Plorencio  Varela, 
and  a  good  many  Europeans,  like  Garibaldi,  who  was  at  the 
head  of  the  Italian  legion. 

Rosas  was  the  most  cruel  tyrant  that  ever  ruled  in 
America.  He  established  a  despotic  form  of  government, 
over  which  he  ruled  for  twenty  years,  during  which  time 
he  mercilessly  persecuted  his  enemies  and  confiscated  their 
property.  He  leaned  upon  and  catered  to  the  lowest  element, 


REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  33 

and  his  audacity  reached  such  a  stage  that  he  had  his  photo- 
graph placed  on  the  altar  of  a  church  in  place  of  one  of 
the  images.  He  was  inimical  to  all  forms  of  civilization 
and  oppressed  all  foreigners.  The  laws  were  proclaimed 
under  the  caption :  "Death  to  the  unclean,  loathsome,  and 
savage  Unitarios,  enemies  of  God  and  Man.  Long  live  the 
Restorer  of  the  law."  His  adherents  were  the  most  dreaded 
assassins.  "La  Mazorca,"  organized  by  Rosas,  was  an  organ- 
ization of  bandits,  associated  for  the  purpose  of  whipping 
and  murdering  all  Unitarios  without  any  process  of  law. 

It  was  this  despotic  cruelty  that  drove  the  Unitarios  and 
their  families  into  Montevideo  and  Chile.  Two  thousand 
two  hundred  Argentinos  were  murdered  during  this  reign 
of  terror  and  tyranny.  His  outrages  against  the  French 
caused  the  French  fleet  to  blockade  the  port  of  Buenos  Aires, 
and  it  was  then  that  he  added  to  his  title,  that  of  "Restaura- 
dor  de  las  leyes,"  the  one  of  "Defensor  de  la  Independencia 
Americana"  (Defender  of  American  Independence),  when 
instead  he  should  have  acquired  the  title  of  "Defensor  de  la 
barbarie  pampeana"   (Defender  of  pampean  cruelty). 

The  Triple  Alliance  Against  Rosas 

It  appears  almost  incredible  to-day  to  read  of  the  atroci- 
ties committed  by  Rosas,  but  nevertheless  it  remains  a  fact. 
He  was  a  bloodthirsty  emulator  of  Neron.  "Amalia,"  by 
the  well-known  author  Jos6  Marmol,  gives  a  very  good  idea 
of  who  Rosas  was  and  what  took  place  under  his  dominion. 
Rosas  claimed  to  be  a  federalist,  but  had  no  conception 
of  what  a  federal  government  should  be,  as  his  government 
was  as  absolute  as  the  most  exaggerated  form  that  could 
be  found  in  any  country  in  the  world.  All  of  Argentina 
was  a  gathering  of  savage  gauchos,  who  controlled  in  their 
territory  in  the  various  provinces,  also  as  absolute  owners 
of  the  land. 

In  December,  1850,  the  defensive  government  of  Monte- 
video celebrated  a  treaty  of  ofifensive-defensive  alliance  with 
Brazil  and  the  Argentine  provinces  of  Entre  Rios  and  Cor- 


54         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

rientes,  against  Rosas.  The  Argentine  General,  Urquiza, 
crossed  the  Uruguay  with  his  troops  to  attack  Oribe,  and 
thus  deprive  Rosas  of  the  former's  support.  The  Brazilians 
also  entered  Oriental  territory.  Oribe  was  soon  after 
abandoned  by  his  best  leaders,  and  nearly  all  of  his  army, 
composed  mostly  of  Argentinos,  joined  Urquiza's  troops, 
and  Oribe  was  compelled  to  capitulate  on  October  3,  1851, 
thereby  terminating  the  siege  of  Montevideo,  which  had 
lasted  for  a  period  of  eight  years,  seven  months,  and  twenty- 
two  days. 

The  allied  forces,  numbering  30,000,  invaded  the  province 
of  Buenos  Aires,  finally  accomplishing  the  overthrow  of 
Rosas  on  the  third  day  of  February,  1852.  He  sailed  in  an 
English  vessel  to  England,  where  he  died  several  years  later. 
Thus  was  fulfilled  the  prophecy  of  MArmol,  the  poet  who 
said :  "Ni  el  polvo  de  tus  huesos  America  tendr^"  (Not  even 
the  dust  of  your  bones  will  America  retain). 

War  Against  Lopez,  the  Tyrant  op  Paraguay 

Another  tyrannical  government  had  been  implanted  in 
Paraguay  by  the  dictator  Francia  and  the  members  of  the 
L6pez  family,  his  successors,  making  it  necessary  for  the 
Argentinos,  Orientales  and  Brasileros  to  organize  a  triple 
alliance  to  demolish  it  (treaty  of  May  1,  1865).  No  more 
bloody  war  has  been  fought  on  American  soil  than  that  be- 
tween the  Lopez  forces  and  those  of  the  nations  allied 
against  him.  The  conflict  lasted  five  years.  Paraguay  was 
ruined  and  its  man  power  almost  completely  annihilated 
defending  a  tyrant  ruler,  not  defending  the  land,  as  the  allies 
did  not  intend  to  acquire  territory  by  conquest,  seeking  only 
to  rid  the  republics  of  America  of  a  despotic  government 
which  was  a  constant  menace  to  their  comfort. 

Paraguay  was  then  the  first  military  power  in  South 
America,  and  her  position  would  have  entitled  her  to  the 
sobriquet  of  "The  Germany  of  America."  Her  ruler,  L6pez, 
had  ideas  in  common  with  the  would-be  world-conqueror  ex- 
Kaiser,  leading  his  people  to  believe  that  he  was  fighting  for 


REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  55 

the  liberty  of  the  country  which  he  ruled  as  a  tyrant,  just  as 
the  Kaiser  succeeded  in  making  his  subjects  believe  that  the 
allied  nations  had  provoked  the  war  as  a  pretext  to  deprive 
them  of  their  commerce  and  rob  them  of  their  wealth.  These 
two  absolute  monarchs  differed,  in  that  L6pez  died  fighting 
the  enemy,  while  Wilhelm  II,  after  careful  planning  and 
watching  for  the  opportunity  that  finally  came,  succeeded  in 
making  his  flight  to  neutral  territory  though  he  yet  had  a 
powerful  army  and  navy  at  his  command. 

''Paraguay  lost  over  500,000  men  in  this  war,  of  whom  160,- 
000  died  in  the  field  of  battle,  40,000  among  those  executed 
and  tortured  to  death,  200,000  victims  of  cholera  epidemic, 
etc.,  and  lastly,  a  vast  number  died  of  hunger."  (Geography 
of  Paraguay,  by  Hector  F.  Decoud,  Asuncion,  1896.) 

The  citizens  of  Paraguay  have  familiarized  themselves 
with  the  depraved  record  of  L6pez,  as  is  proven  by  the 
earnest  protest  recently  made  at  Asuncion  when  some  one 
planned  to  honor  the  memory  of  the  tyrant  Lopez.  His  case 
should  be  treated  in  like  manner  as  that  of  the  Kaiser,  who 
is  being  cursed  by  his  former  countrymen  as  having  been  the 
instigator  of  the  most  terrible  catastrophe  ever  recorded  in 
history,  for  Paraguay's  position  in  American  politics  at  that 
time  was  identical  to  that  of  Germany  in  European  poli- 
tics until  destroyed  by  the  recent  war  which  proved  the 
Kaiser's  undoing,  under  which  government  the  people  as 
a  whole  were  further  advanced  in  a  general  way  but  polit- 
ically the  least  competent — the  government  of  Germany 
having  been  conducted  as  were  those  of  medieval  times.  The 
political  education  of  the  people  is  worth  far  more  than  all 
German  "Kultur"  methods  such  as  make  her  unfit  for  real 
self-government,  due  to  the  fact  that  her  subjects  have  been 
brought  up  to  obey  and  given  no  opportunity  to  practice  any 
form  of  free  government. 

The  Oriental  Republic  in  1885  exempted  Paraguay  from 
payment  of  the  war  debt  and  returned  to  the  latter  all  the 
trophies  of  war  which  the  Orientales  had  captured  during 
the  conflict,  with  the  statement  that  the  war  had  not  been 


56         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

waged  against  the  noble  Paraguayans  but  against  the  despot 
Lopez. 

The  Causes  Which  Led  to  the  Independence  of  South 
America  prom   Spain 

In  the  chapter  wherein  Professor  Shepherd  explains  the 
causes  which  led  to  the  Independence  of  Spanish  America, 
he  says :  "Few  movements  in  history  have  been  so  much  mis- 
understood and  few  have  displayed  such  a  complexity  of 
purposes  and  methods,  and  none  has  presented  a  stranger 
outcome  as  the  series  of  revolutions  which  from  1810  to  1826 
destroyed  the  power  of  Spain  in  America."  The  struggle  is 
best  explained  by  regarding  it  from  a  threefold  point  of 
view:  Spanish,  Spanish-American  and  European,  "In  the 
first  place,"  says  Shepherd,  "it  was  a  fight  between  Span- 
iards of  the  New  World  and  a  conservative  government  of 
the  Old  World."  We  would  say  more  fittingly  that  it  was 
a  struggle  between  the  old  spirit  of  Spain  anterior  to  Carlos 
V  and  the  absolute  ideas  of  domination  of  the  latter,  which 
destroyed  Spanish  liberty.  In  Spain,  Padilla  and  the  Comu- 
neros  revolted  against  the  absolute  power  of  Carlos  V  (who 
ruled  according  to  the  German  way)  and  were  defeated, 
but  the  triumph  of  the  absolute  monarchy  proved  disas- 
trous for  Spain,  as  America  could  not  become  the  victim 
of  tyrannical  government,  without  protesting,  which  was 
done  by  the  War  of  the  Comuneros  of  Paraguay  in  1723, 
who  in  their  proclamation  resolved :  ''That  the  authority  of 
the  people  was  superior  to  even  that  of  the  Mngj"  This 
revolution  was  suppressed  and  its  leader  executed  after  he 
resigned  his  command,  but  there  remained  within  the  breast 
of  each  Paraguayan  and  Platense  a  concealed  animosity 
towardvS  the  tyranny  of  Spain.  Shepherd  credits  the  Indians 
as  being  neutral  or  inclined  to  favor  the  government  of  the 
metropolis;  this  may  be  true  of  the  Indians  and  Mestizos 
of  Peru  and  other  Andean  districts,  trained  in  the  school  of 
despotism  or  absolute  government  of  the  Incas.  These  In- 
dians did  not  detect  any  difference  between  their  old  form  of 


REGION  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  RIVER  57 

government  and  that  administered  bj  Spain.  Indian  the- 
ocracy did  not  recognize  citizenship,  and  had  it  not  been 
that  the  Spaniards  forced  the  Indians  to  work,  these  would 
have  perhaps  preferred  the  Spanish  form  of  government. 
But  such  was  not  the  case  with  the  pampean  Indian  of  the 
La  Plata,  the  Charrtia  of  Uruguay,  the  Arauoano  of  Chile, 
and  the  Guaranl  of  the  Paraguay  and  of  the  Bolivian  plains, 
who  were  never  subdued,  who  always  maintained  their  inde- 
pendence and  were  the  first  to  assist  in  the  expulsion  of  the 
Spaniards,  and  also  contributed  the  larger  number  of  de- 
fenders to  the  cause  of  independence,  many  of  the  city  resi- 
dents remaining  neutral,  preferring  a  tranquil  existence, 
whether  as  subjects  of  Si3ain  or  of  any  other  dominion. 

Other  factors  which  Shepherd  and  many  other  historians 
believe  had  an  influence  on  the  independence  of  the  South 
American  colonies  were  the  ideas  evoked  in  connection  with 
the  American  and  French  revolutions,  as  well  as  those  ad- 
vanced by  the  philosophers  Montesquieu,  Rousseau  and  Vol- 
taire, neither  of  which  was  known  but  slightly  in  South 
America.  Books  and  printed  matter  were  not  at  that  time 
world-known,  and  besides,  the  great  majority  of  South 
Americans,  particularly  the  residents  of  the  champaign, 
who  took  an  active  part  in  the  revolutions,  the  real  patriots, 
were  unable  to  read.  It  was  not  ideas,  it  was  not  what 
the  philosophers  said  that  aroused  those  patriots,  but  it 
was  the  spirit  of  freedom  in  the  Indian  and  the  Creole  before 
Spain's  time,  during  the  rule  of  Spain  and  after  the  victory 
over  Spain.  It  is  that  same  spirit  that  causes  them  to  revolt 
and  take  up  arms  against  the  seat  of  government  when  it 
no  longer  respects  their  rights.  These  are  the  horrible  revo- 
lutions which  so  alarm  the  Europeans  ivhen  contrasting  the 
South  American  revolutionists  with  the  meek  and  tolerant 
people  of  some  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  among  them  the 
Germans,  Austrians,  etc.,  who  will  stand  for  the  most  tyran- 
nical or  despotic  form  of  government. 

The  moment  for  which  the  South  Americans  had  so  long- 
ingly waited  to  accomplish  their  desires  came  when  Napo- 


58         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

leon  invaded  Spain,  as  we  hereinbefore  stated.  We  must 
insist  that  the  independence  was  not  brought  about  by  the 
dreamers  and  thinkers,  but  by  the  plainsmen,  men  of  action 
— the  gauchos  of  the  La  Plata,  the  'llaneros  (plainsmen)  of 
Venezuela,  and  Nueva  Granada  (now  Colombia),  Bolivar 
and  Artigas,  the  "Caudillos,"  who  embody  the  souls  of 
peoples,  and  San  Martin,  Sucre  and  Cordoba,  the  generals 
who  win  the  battles  for  freedom. 

COLONIAL  AUTHORITIES! 

Summary 

Indian  Council — Board  of  Traffic  and  Commerce — The  Royal  Audience — Consulates — 
The  Viceroys — The  Governors — The  Cabildos — Town  Mayors — Spanish  Municipal  Laws 
— Padilla  and  the  Comuneros. 

Indian  Council. 

The  discovery  and  settlement  of  America,  which  placed 
such  vast  domains  under  the  authority  of  the  King  of  Spain, 
had  an  immediate  influence  on  the  public  administration  of 
the  Metropolis  whereby  the  opportunity  came  to  create  new 
special  authorities  entrusted  exclusively  with  American 
affairs. 

The  judicial  concept  on  Spanish  domination  of  America, 
decreed  complete  separation  of  its  affairs  and  those  of  the 
Metropolis,  the  only  tie  binding  America  to  Spain  being 
the  authority  of  the  Sovereign  who  governed  Spain 
under  the  mandate  of  a  public  law  which  insured  the  people 
a  certain  participation  in  public  matters,  particularly  as  to 
the  levying  of  taxes  voted  upon  by  the  Cortes  (Senate  and 
Congress  of  Deputies  in  Si)ain).  America  became  the  ex- 
clusive property  of  the  Sovereign  with  all  rights  vested  in 
him  and  combining  the  Executive,  Legislative  and  Judicial 
powers,  with  authority  thereby  to  tax  and  alienate  the  prop- 
erty if  he  so  desired. 

Consequently,  America  did  not  form  a  governmental  part 
of  Spain,  it  being  only  and  exclusively  the  property  or 

» From  the  "  Historical  Manual  of  the  Oriental  Republic  of  Uruguay,"  by  Santiago 
Bollo,  Libreria  Nacionali  Montevideo. 


COLONIAL  AUTHORITIES  59 

dominion  of  the  Sovereign.  We  will  see  further  on  how  at 
the  beginning  of  the  struggle  for  the  independence  of  South 
America  that  this  judicial  concept  of  sovereignty  was  to  be 
the  legal  doctrine  to  be  invoked  for  its  severance  from  the 
Metropolis. 

The  supreme  authority  on  whom  rested  all  matters  rela- 
tive to  America  consisted  of  an  Advisory  Board  which  bore 
the  title  "Consejo  Real  de  Indias"  (Royal  Indian  Council) 
which  body  was  appointed  as  were  all  other  supreme 
colonial  authorities,  directly  by  the  Crown. 

One  of  the  functions  of  the  Council  was  the  drafting  of 
Ordinances  and  Laws  pertaining  to  civil  as  well  as  econo- 
mical and  religious  matters  which  it  presented  for  final 
approbation  to  the  King  who  on  finding  them  to  his  liking 
would  publish  them  and  order  their  enforcement.  The 
Council  also  attended  to  the  revision  of  all  plans  by  the 
viceroys  who,  on  the  Council's  mandate,  would  submit  them 
to  the  King. 

Board  of  Commerce 

The  Board  of  Commerce  established  at  Sevilla,  about  the 
year  1605,  was  also  a  collegiate  body  composed  of  President, 
Treasurer,  Accountant,  three  Advocate  Judges  and  Prose- 
cutor. The  functions  of  this  Board  were  to  attend  to  all 
matters  relative  to  commerce  and  navigation  in  connection 
with  America,  to  directly  supervise  the  dispatching  and 
registering  of  all  vessels  destined  to  take  care  of  the  Indian 
trade,  and  to  exercise  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction  on  all 
cases  arising  therefrom. 

The  Royal  Audience 

The  Royal  Audience  had  judicial  supervision  within  the 
territory  to  which  it  was  assigned  and  had  the  authority  as 
a  second  and  third  higher  tribunal  to  hear  civil  and  crim- 
inal cases  originating  before  the  lower  courts,  and  having 
besides,  the  right  to  pass  on  the  appointments  of  those 
magistrates. 


60         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

The  members  of  these  Audiences  were  appointed  by  the 
King  with  whom  this  assembly  communicated  directly  and 
which  privilege  contributed  largely  to  earning  for  it  the 
high  consideration  in  which  it  was  held. 

Consulates 

The  Indian  Consulates,  established  since  1543,  composed 
an  institution  adapted  to  the  commerce  of  America  and  at- 
tended to  the  settlement  of  all  disagreements  between  the 
carriers. 

The  election  of  the  Consuls  was  conducted  by  two  graded 
bodies,  or  in  other  words,  the  carriers  in  a  body  selected 
thirty  of  their  number  who,  in  turn,  elected  the  Consuls. 

The  Viceroys 

The  executive  power  in  the  territory  of  the  colonies  rested 
on  the  Viceroys,  who,  as  the  name  indicates,  were  the  direct 
representatives  or  delegates  of  the  Crown  and  vesting  in 
themselves  such  political  powers  as  the  Sovereign  had  not 
already  delegated  to  some  one  else. 

The  vast  American  domains  had  during  the  colonial 
period,  only  four  viceroj^ships,  namely:  Mexico,  Nueva 
Granada,  Peru  and  Rio  de  la  Plata,  organized  according  to 
the  latter,  in  the  year  1776. 

As  the  Crown's  representatives,  the  Viceroys  had  supreme 
jurisdiction  over  all  matters  and  under  no  other  appellate 
authority  than  the  King  himself.  They  had  the  right  to 
modify  judicial  deliberations,  and,  in  fact,  provide  them- 
selves with  the  supreme  authority  of  the  King,  without  any 
other  limitation  than  what  was  expressly  prohibited. 

The  Viceroys  had  under  their  immediate  jurisdiction 
several  Governors,  each  viceroyship  being  divided  into 
gubernatorial  districts  which,  in  some  cases,  embraced  large 
territorial  areas.  The  Viceroys  were  also  Commanders-in- 
chief  of  land  and  sea  forces  with  supreme  military  au- 
thority and  the  privilege  to  appoint  and  discharge  the  com^ 
manding  officers  of  the  land  forces. 


COLONIAL  AUTHORITIES  61 

Such  responsibility  attached  to  the  office  of  Viceroy  to 
which  supposedly  highly  respectable  men  of  the  Metropolis 
were  appointed,  that  they  were  prohibited  from  coming  to 
America  in  company  with  their  wives  and  sons  and  the 
wives  of  the  latter. 

Governors 

Each  Governor  and  Intendant  comprised  the  Executive 
Department  in  their  respective  gubernatorial  district  into 
which  the  viceroyship  was  divided.  They  were,  as  a  rule, 
appointed  by  the  Viceroy,  but  these  appointments  were 
temporary,  as  the  appointment  only  became  effective  after 
confirmation  by  the  King.  Some  of  these  appointments 
were  not  confirmed  at  times  and  therefore  the  provisional 
Governor  would  retire  in  favor  of  the  King's  appointee. 

As  a  necessary  qualification,  the  prospective  Governor 
had  to  be  a  native  born  citizen  of  Spain  and  he  should  bind 
himself  not  to  contract  marriage  in  the  territory  where  he 
was  to  assume  authority. 

The  general  functions  of  the  Governors  were  the  same  as 
those  of  the  Viceroys  within  their  respective  jurisdiction, 
excepting  that  the  latter  were  superior  in  authority.  When- 
ever a  vacancy  occurred,  whether  through  death  or  for  any 
other  reason,  or  the  appointee  failed  to  take  up  the  duties 
of  his  office  at  the  time,  the  Royal  Audience  would  take 
charge  until  the  appointment  of  a  successor  or  until  the 
original  appointee  was  ready  to  exercise  the  duties  of  his 
office. 

Cabildos  (Town  Assemblies) 

The  only  authority  that  did  not  emanate  directly  from 
the  Metropolis  amidst  the  various  regulations  which  com- 
pletely absorbed  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  native 
born  American,  was  the  institution  called  Cabildo  or  Ayun- 
tamiento  (Town  Assembly)  whose  members  were  elected 
from  among  Spaniards  or  Americans  without  distinction, 


62         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

only  that  the  candidate  be  a  resident  of  the  town  and  a  man 
of  sound  moral  character.  Theoretically,  the  Cabildo  was 
the  genuine  representative  body  of  the  people,  an  adulter- 
ated imitation  of  the  ancient  Comunas  of  the  Metropolis 
which  shared  in  the  carrying  out  of  public  questions  through 
the  deputies  sent  from  the  towns  by  the  efforts  of  the 
Comunas,  to  the  General  Congress. 

We  have  stated  that  this  institution  represented  the 
people  only  theoretically,  for  although  the  election  of  its 
members  was  originally  by  popular  acclaim,  besides  holding 
elections  to  name  a  successor  to  fill  each  vacancy  occurring, 
the  truth  was  that  the  sovereign  reserved  unto  himself  the 
right  to  name  a  few  of  its  members  who  were  none  other 
than  the  five  appointed  for  life,  who  naturally  had  more 
prestige  than  those  who  were  elected  annually,  not  alone 
for  the  reason  of  their  owning  the  position  but  also  in 
recognition  of  the  origin  of  their  authority  as  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  interests  of  the  Sovereign. 

The  municipal  power  of  Spain  had  suffered  the  first  of 
the  illegal  attacks  of  the  throne,  and  at  the  time  to 
which  we  refer  it  had  been  deprived  of  its  attributes  and 
independence.  It  existed  only  as  a  ridiculous  image  of 
what  it  once  had  been.  National  sovereignty  was  originally 
concentrated  in  the  municipal  power.  It  was  the  legiti- 
mate organ  of  expression  of  each  community's  social  inter- 
ests, but  the  fusion  of  the  divers  monarchies  and  lordships 
into  which  the  peninsula  was  divided,  together  with  the 
plan  of  centralization  evolved  by  Fernando  the  Catholic 
and  consummated  by  Carlos  V  accomplished  the  ruin  of 
that  municipal  power.  By  the  time  of  the  conquest  there 
remained  not  a  trace  of  this  power  in  the  Cabildos.  Subse- 
quent Indian  legislation  reduced  these  institutions  to  an 
absolute  nonentity  and  reversed  the  order  of  their  functions 
by  completely  surrendering  them  to  the  despotic  and  arbi- 
trary government  of  the  Metropolis. 

Carlos  V,  King  of  Spain  and  Emperor  of  Germany,  was 
not  a  Spaniard.     He  was  German  on  his  father's  side  and 


COLONIAL  AUTHORITIES  63 

by  education,  and  was  not  even  familiar  with  the  Spanish 
language  at  the  time  of  his  occupation  of  the  throne.  He 
surrounded  himself  from  the  very  beginning  of  his  reign 
with  a  German  Court  and  a  government  conducted  k  la 
Germanica,  in  no  different  manner  than  was  the  recently 
deposed  German  Kaiser,  the  instigator  of  the  war  that  has 
destroyed  Europe.  Carlos  V  died  insane  while  confiued 
in  a  convent,  and  the  Carlos  V  of  the  present  day,  as  a 
criminal  also,  will  in  time  be  called  to  justice. 

Were  the  Spaniards  to  familiarize  themselves  with  the 
history  of  Carlos  V,  there  would  be  no  German  sympathiz- 
ers among  them,  inasmuch  as  it  was  the  Germanic  system 
that  brought  about  the  ruination  of  Spain  and  Spanish 
liberty. 

Whenever  the  Cabildo  sat  in  private  session  it  was  de- 
nominated Cabildo  Cerrado  (Reserved  Assembly),  but  when 
the  public  was  admitted  to  its  deliberations  it  was  called 
Cabildo  Abierto  (Open  Assembly).  The  latter  would  con- 
vene either  on  petition  by  the  people  or  of  its  own  volition, 
the  conduct  of  its  deliberations  being  similar  to  that  of 
assemblies  of  the  old  democracies. 


CORREGIDORES    (ToWN    MAGISTRATES) 

The  corregidores  were  the  exclusive  functionaries  of 
those  districts  where  the  indigenes  under  subjection  were 
congregated,  their  duties  being  to  impart  justice  in  cases 
where  Indians  and  Spaniards  were  in  dispute,  to  represent 
the  former  in  all  such  cases  and  more  specially  to  train 
them  in  all  the  industries,  strictly  prohibiting  them  from 
keeping  any  of  the  profit  from  their  own  work.  These 
oflScials  were  also  appointed  by  the  Crown. 


Spanish  Municipal  Rights 
In  Spain  as  well  as  in  America  at  a  later  period,  munic- 


64         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

ipal  power  was  vested  in  the  Cabildos  whose  members  were 
the  direct  representatives  of  the  people  and 
ComunenJy^CMem-  ^^®  medium  throiigh  whom  the  necessary 
opposing  th7 en-  arrangements  were  made  in  the  selection 

ScSV?  0^  Deputies  to  be  sent  to  the  Cortes  who  in 

turn,  as  we  have  learned,  drafted  legisla- 
tion on  matters  relative  to  taxation  and  were  also  re- 
sponsible for  the  security  of  the  fundamental  laws  of  the 
nation,  should  these  at  any  time  be  in  danger  of  being  ab- 
sorbed by  the  power  of  the  Sovereign. 

The  elections  of  Deputies  to  the  Cortes  were  conducted 
at  the  Town  Hall  or  Cabildo  headquarters  under  the  chair- 
manship of  the  Cabildo.  The  powers  with  which  they  were 
invested  clearly  specified  the  wishes  of  the  civic  bodies  they 
represented,  leaving  it  to  the  people  to  be  the  judges  with 
the  privilege  to  pass  on  the  use  or  misuse  that  the  Deputies 
would  make  of  these  powers.  Thus,  the  Cabildos  were 
primarily  the  bodies  entrusted  to  guard  the  rights  and 
privileges  of  the  civic  communities  as  well  as  to  take  the 
lead  should  the  people  revolt  at  any  time  against  the  viola- 
tion of  their  prerogative.  Such  was  the  action  taken  in 
1520  when  on  the  occasion  of  Carlos  V  leaving  Spanish 
territory  to  go  to  Germany,  the  Cortes  met  in  session  at 
Santiago  de  Galicia  to  confer  on  a  subsidy  which  was  asked 
by  the  King  to  pay  for  the  expenses  of  his  trip. 

Therefore,  taking  advantage  of  the  opportunity  afforded 
by  the  Cortes,  the  majority  of  the  Spanish  cities  sent  their 
Deputies  with  explicit  instructions  demanding  that  the 
King  stay  within  the  confines  of  the  nation,  or  in  case  he 
should  absent  himself  therefrom,  to  leave  part  of  the  na- 
tional territory  in  the  hands  of  the  various  cities  and  not  to 
centralize  it  in  one  foreign  regent,  thereby  violating 
monarchial  laws. 

Padilla  and  the  Comuneros 

These  Deputies  had  express  orders  not  to  take  part  in  the 
voting  on  the  question  of  subsidy  until  action  had  been 


COLONIAL  AUTHORITIES  65 

taken  by  the  King  on  the  various  petitions  made  through 
them  by  their  respective  cities.  But  instead,  the  Deputies 
went  before  the  Cortes,  tied  hand  and  foot,  voting  for  all 
measures  that  the  King  through  his  minister  demanded  of 
them.  This  disloyal  action  was  the  signal  for  a  general 
insurrection  by  the  cities  represented,  and  their  taking  up 
of  arms  in  defense  of  their  trodden  rights.  The  first  one  to 
give  the  signal  was  Toledo,  supported  by  two  of  the  mem- 
bers of  his  Cabildo,  Don  Juan  de  Padilla  and  Don  Fernando 
Davales.  This  revolution  was  suppressed  by  force  of  arms 
and  the  leaders  executed.  This  also  sounded  the  death 
knell  to  Spanish  liberty  under  the  despotic  reign  of  Emperor 
Carlos  V  and  that  of  his  successors.  This  same  Carlos  V,  a 
native  of  Gante,  was  the  one  who  in  reply  to  a  lawful  peti- 
tion from  his  fellow-citizens  in  support  of  their  rights,  had 
them  executed  as  a  warning  to  all  who  dared  complain. 


CHAPTER  II 

HISTORICAL  INFORMATION  ABOUT  THE  CENTRAL 
ANDEAN  REGION— PERU  AND  BOLIVIA 

SUMMARY 

Conquest  of  Peru — Empire  of  the  Incas — Upper  Peru  from  1810  to  1812 — Spanish 
Invasions  into  Argentina — Argentine  Invasions  into  Upper  Peru — San  Martin  Crosses  the 
Andes — Bolivar  and  San  Martin — The  Guayaquil  Conference. 

The  CoNQUEsr  op  Peru 

The  conquest  of  the  Andean  region  first  began  in  1524 
by  the  famous  conquerors  Francisco  Pizarro  and  Diego 
de  Almagro,  who  started  from  Panama  and,  traveling  along 
the  Pacific  coast,  penetrated  as  far  south  as  Peru.  The  two 
sons  of  Huaina  Capac — Huascar  and  Atahualpa — were  at 
war  against  each  other  at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the 
Spaniards.  Huascar  solicited  Pizarro's  assistance  against 
his  brother  Atahualpa,  who  did  likewise  when  in  1532  he 
went  before  Pizarro  in  great  pomp  and  splendor.  This 
was  the  opportune  moment  of  which  Pizarro  took  advantage 
to  treacherously  imprison  Atahualpa,  who  was  tried  for 
imaginary  crimes  and  executed.  One  of  Atahualpa's  sons 
was  proclaimed  luca,  but  his  reign  was  of  short  dura- 
tion, as  he  died  soon  after  having  assumed  power. 

Pizarro  returned  to  Spain  and  obtained  the  confirmation 
of  his  authorit}',  Almagro  being  designated  for  the  conquest 
of  the  lands  to  the  South.  Pizarro  founded  the  City  of 
Lima  on  the  site  which  to  him  seemed  the  most  proper  for 
the  exchange  of  communications  with  Spain.  In  the  mean- 
time, Almagro  proceeded  in  a  southerly  direction  and  ex- 
plored Chile,  but  failed  to  find  any  gold,  which  was  his 
main  object,  and  also  that  of  Pizarro.  Almagro's  troops 
had  been  reduced  considerably  in  numbers  in  crossing  the 


PERU   AND    BOLIVIA  67 

desert  of  Atacama  and  later  in  crossing  the  mountains, 
Almagro  returning  to  Peru  very  much  disappointed  and 
disillusioned.    Valdivia  was  finally  the  conqueror  of  Chile. 

The  Peruanos  rose  up  in  rebellion  and  attacked  the 
Almagro  troops,  who  routed  the  former  and  took  the  city 
of  Cuzco,  which  Almagro  claimed  as  his  own.  The  civil 
strife  between  the  Spanish  factions  started,  culminating  in 
the  defeat  of  Almagro,  who  was  made  prisoner  and  decapi- 
tated. Pizarro  was  soon  after  assassinated  by  Almagro's 
adherents. 

Gonzalo  Pizarro  next  assumed  authority  and  revolted 
against  Spain,  which  action  was  later  indorsed  by  Carbajal, 
who  burned  the  royal  banner  to  the  ground  and  hoisted  one 
which  he  himself  designed.  Both  Pizarro  and  Carbajal 
died  in  battle  against  the  royal  army,  which  had  been 
organized  by  Pedro  de  Gasca,  sent  from  Spain  to  assume 
control  of  the  government  of  Peru. 

In  looking  back  into  the  remote  past  to  the  first  Peruvian 
Empire,  founded  3,000  years  before  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era,  we  find  little  to  establish  its  identity,  but 
such  is  not  the  case  with  the  empire  founded  in  the  year 
1100  A.  D.,  by  Manco  Capac,  which  dynasty  numbered 
thirteen  emperors,  ending  with  the  rule  of  Tupac  Amaru, 
who  was  beheaded  by  the  Spaniards  in  1571.  The  empire 
was  named  Tauantinsuyu,  which  in  the  Quichua  language 
means  "The  Four  Regions."  The  god  of  these  agriculturists 
was  the  Sun,  whose  rays  ripen  the  earth's  products  and 
give  life  to  creation  throughout.  The  lands  were  divided 
into  three  equal  portions :  one  for  the  Inca  Emperor,  another 
for  the  Sun  and  priests,  and  a  third  for  the  people.  Each 
married  man  received  a  parcel  of  land,  which  increased  with 
each  new  son  born  to  the  family.  The  lands  were  again 
divided  after  the  harvesting  of  the  crops.  Farming  was 
done  in  common,  first  cultivating  the  lands  of  the  Sun,  then 
those  of  the  soldiers,  and  lastly  those  of  the  individual 
families.  The  Great  Spirit,  supporter  of  their  religion,  was 
known  as  Pachacamac,  whose  symbol  was  the  Sun.    The 


68         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

inhabitants  were  familiar  with  astronomy,  and  the  seasons 
of  the  year  had  special  recognition;  Spring  and  Summer, 
when  nature  appears  the  brightest,  was  the  "Season  of 
Creative  Heat,"  while  Autumn  and  Winter  represented  the 
"Season  of  the  Darkened  Side." 

They  were  also  familiar  with  the  twelve  signs  of  the 
zodiac,  and  the  Milky  Way  was  to  them  a  belt  of  luminous 
matter.  Their  chronological  records  dated  back  3,000  years 
before  the  present  era  began.  They  used  to  celebrate  festivi- 
ties in  honor  of  the  Sun  when  the  rays  of  this  heavenly 
body  attained  their  verticality  at  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn. 
Instead  of  penmanship  they  used  "Quipus,"  which  con- 
sisted of  strings  of  various  colors,  which  with  the  aid  of 
knots  tied  in  divers  ways,  enabled  them  to  record  a  variety 
of  events.  Their  architecture  was  of  a  massive  style  like 
that  of  the  Egyptians,  and  their  buildings  more  substantial 
than  those  of  the  Romans,  as  attested  by  the  ruins  of  their 
temples,  the  Cuzco  Palace,  and  several  other  works  of  con- 
struction. 

Alto  (Upper)  Peru  prom  1810  to  1812 

We  will  take  a  passing  glance  at  the  regions  of  Alto 
Peru  (Bolivia),  where  the  general  headquarters  of  the 
Spanish  troops  were  situated,  and  which  troops  had  instruc- 
tions to  advance  upon  and  attack  the  patriotic  army  of 
Argentina. 

The  Army  of  the  North  under  the  command  of  Balcarce, 
entered  Bolivia  on  the  27th  of  October,  1810,  attacked  Cota- 
gaita,  and  was  defeated.  A  second  attack  was  successfully 
carried  out,  this  time  at  Suipacha,  ending  with  the  capture 
of  Cotagaita.  The  attacking  army  proceeded  north  and 
on  meeting  defeat  at  Huaqui  was  compelled  to  retreat  to 
Argentine  territory. 

After  the  defeat  at  Huaqui,  the  Army  of  the  North,  under 
instructions  from  Belgrano,  initiated  its  campaign  and  was 
victorious  at  the  battle  of  Piedras  River  on  the  2d  of  Sep- 
tember, 1812,  and  soon  after  routed  the  enemy  at  Tucuman, 


PERU    AND    BOLIVIA  69 

pursuing  the  Spanish  army  to  Salta,  where  they  were 
obliged  to  capitulate. 

Belgrano  penetrated  Upper  Peru,  which  was  in  revolt 
against  Spain,  went  to  Potosi,  and  on  his  march  north- 
wardly he  was  attacked  by  Viceroy  Pezuela,  his  forces  being 
first  defeated  at  Vilcapugio  in  October,  1813,  and  later  at 
Ayouma  on  the  14th  of  November  following.  The  Argentine 
troops  had  again  failed  in  their  mission,  and  returned 
to  Argentine  territory  a  second  time. 

These  fruitless  attempts  convinced  the  army  of  patriots 
that  this  was  not  the  proper  route  for  them  to  carry  on 
a  successful  campaign  against  Spanish  power,  and  con- 
sidered the  plan  of  maritime  connections  to  reach  Lima,  the 
capital  of  Peru  and  center  of  all  resources  used  by  Spain. 
This  was  the  idea  conceived  by  General  San  Martin,  who  was 
more  capable  and  better  prepared  than  Belgrano  to  take 
charge  of  the  campaign.  The  Army  of  the  North  under 
Rondeau  again  ventured  into  Upper  Peru,  a  third  time 
reached  Potosi,  and  though  favored  in  a  way  that  it  had  not 
been  formerly,  was  completely  routed  at  Sipe  Sipe  and 
forced  to  retreat. 

Spanish   Invasion  of  Northern  Argentina  Checked  by 

THE  GauCHOS  op   GtJEMES 

After  the  battle  of  Sipe  Sipe,  the  Spaniards  invaded  Salta 
and  Jujuy  in  1816,  but  were  checked  by  the  brave  gauchos 
of  Giiemes,  fearless  soldiers  and  expert  riders,  such  as  the 
Orientales  of  Artigas  and  Rivera,  who  had  battled  against 
veteran  Spanish  troops.  The  courage  displayed  by  the 
gauchos  was  such  that  they  would  venture  near  enough  to 
throw  their  lasso  around  the  soldiers  on  guard  duty  and 
drag  them  away  as  prisoners.  The  gauchos  finally  drove 
the  Spaniards  out  by  their  continued  surprise  attacks, 
though  without  the  implements  so  necessary  in  battle. 

The  Army  of  Argentina  Crosses  the  Andes  to  Chile 
San  Martin  was  at  Cuyo  organizing  the  army  which  was 


70  SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

to  cross  the  Andes  for  the  purpose  of  attacking  the 
Spaniards  in  Chile  and  thence  go  by  water  to  Peru.  On 
completing  the  preparations  for  his  Chilean  campaign,  with 
his  Army  of  the  Andes  in  two  divisions  of  4,000  soldiers  and 
1,200  recruits,  San  Martin  left  the  encampment  at  Mendoza 
and  began  his  journey  across  the  Andes  through  the  passes 
of  Uspallata  and  Los  Patos,  encamping  in  the  valley  of 
Aconcagua  in  Chile.  In  their  first  encounter,  which  took 
place  at  Chacabuco,  the  Spaniards  were  routed  and  almost 
the  entire  army  captured.  San  Martin  next  entered 
Santiago,  the  capital  of  Chile,  which  Junta  de  Notables 
(Council  of  Notables)  elected  him  Supreme  Director  of 
Chile,  but  San  Martin  did  not  accept  the  honor  and  there- 
fore the  title  was  bestowed  upon  General  O'Higgins. 

The  Spaniards,  through  a  surprise  attack  in  the  valley 
of  Cancha  Rayada  on  the  10th  of  March,  1818,  caused  the 
Argentine  army  to  scatter,  but  it  was  promptly  brought  to- 
gether by  San  Martin,  who  led  it  to  victory  in  the  battle 
of  the  valley  of  Maipo  on  the  5th  of  April,  1818.  This 
glorious  victory  opened  the  road  to  Peru. 

On  the  20th  of  August,  1820,  San  Martin,  at  the  head  of 
4,430  Argentines  and  Chilenos,  set  sail  from  the  port  of 
Valparaiso  with  the  Chilean  fleet  under  the  celebrated 
Admiral  Lord  Cochrane,  disembarking  on  the  coast  of  Peru 
on  September  the  8th. 

BolIvar  and  San  Martin — Conference  at  Guayaquil 

The  Spaniards  scattered  throughout  Peru  and  the  Argen- 
tine frontier  numbered  20,000. 

The  army  commanded  by  San  Martin  had  its  first  triumph 
against  the  Spaniards  at  Cerro  de  Pasco,  going  from  there 
to  Lima  the  capital  of  the  Viceroyship  of  Peru,  thence  to 
Callao,  a  strongly  fortified  port,  both  of  which  had  been 
recently  abandoned  by  the  Spanish  forces. 

During  the  same  period,  another  illustrious  patriot,  Gen- 
eral Bolivar,  "Libertador  del  Norte"  (Liberator  from  the 
North)   had  after  hard-fought  battles  reached  Guayaquil, 


PEEU   AND    BOLIVIA  71 

having  first  liberated  Venezuela,  Colombia  and  Quito.  On 
being  invited  to  a  conference  in  Guayaquil,  San  Martin  met 
the  other  liberator  to  consult  upon  a  plan  for  the  conduct  of 
the  Peruvian  campaign.  Bolivar  expressed  his  desire  to 
continue  his  campaign  through  Peru,  and  so  San  Martin 
realized  that  the  only  thing  for  him  to  do  was  to  withdraw 
and  make  the  sacrifice  in  behalf  of  the  South-American 
cause  in  order  that  Bolivar  could  lead  his  army  to  Peru  and 
thereby  consummate  its  independence  through  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  only  remaining  center  of  Spanish  power.  San 
Martin  arrived  at  Lima  on  the  20th  of  August  and  pre- 
sented his  sealed  resignation  to  the  Constituent  Congress 
duly  assembled,  leaving  soon  after  for  Chile.  On  accepting 
his  resignation.  The  Congress  bestowed  upon  San  Martin 
the  title:  "Fundador  de  la  Libertad  del  Peru"  (Founder  of 
the  Liberty  of  Peru)  and  "Capitan  General  de  sus  ejercitos" 
(Captain  General  of  its  Armies).  Thus  terminated  the 
career  of  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  the  war  for  South- 
American  independence. 


CHAPTER  III 

HISTORICAL    INFORMATION    ABOUT    THE    NORTH 

ANDEAN  REGION— VENEZUELA,  COLOMBIA 

AND  ECUADOR 

SUMMARY 

Independence  of  the  North  Andean  Region — Miranda  and  Bolivar,  Northern  Heroes — 
The  Liberating  Armies  of  the  North  and  the  South  Shake  Hands  in  Peru — Sarmiento's  and 
Rodo's  Opinion  of  Bolivar. 

Miranda  and  Bolivar — Northern  Heroes 

We  will  now  look  into  the  important  events  which  pre- 
ceded the  independence  of  the  provinces  of  the  Andes.  We 
have  already  stated  that  one  month  before  the  Cry  of 
Freedom  by  the  Argentinos  of  Buenos  Aires,  in  the  month  of 
May,  the  people  of  Caracas,  in  public  meeting  assembled,  de- 
clared that  "Venezuela  in  the  exercise  of  its  natural  and 
political  rights"  would  proceed  to  establish  a  government 
which  would  exercise  its  authority  in  the  name  and  as  the 
representative  of  Fernando  VII.  Bogota  did  likewise, 
establishing  another  assembly  on  July  20th,  and  Chile's  on 
September  the  18th. 

The  Miranda  revolution  failed  in  1812,  when  he  capitu- 
lated at  San  Mateo.  He  was  sent  to  Cadiz  and  imprisoned 
in  the  Carraca  (the  navy  yard  in  Ci\diz,  Spain)  with  a  ring 
placed  around  his  neck  like  a  common  criminal,  in  which 
prison  he  died  in  1816.  Miranda's  comrades,  Bolivar  and 
the  other  leaders  migrated  to  Cartagena  (New  Granada, 
now  Colombia),  which  was  in  the  hands  of  the  revolu- 
tionists. Bolivar,  who  initiated  his  campaign  in  1813,  after 
seven  victories  reached  Caracas,  his  native  land,  a  trium- 
phant hero.  In  his  manifesto  of  June  15  he  stated  the 
following:  '' Spaniards  and  Canaries — Reckon  with  Death, 

72 


VENEZUELA,  COLOMBIA  AND  ECUADOE        73 

notwithstanding  your  neutrality.  Americans — Count  on 
Life  though  guilty  you  might  be."  This  was  in  retaliation 
for  the  butcheries  and  atrocities  committed  by  the 
Spaniards. 

In  1813,  after  alternate  victories  and  defeats,  Bolivar 
started  the  organization  of  an  Assembly.  During  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  was  defeated  at  Lapuerta  and  Aragua  by 
the  bloodthirsty  Boves,  who  also  triumphed  over  Kivas  and 
Bermudes  at  Maturin.  Three  thousand  of  the  inhabitants 
of  this  latter  town  were  put  to  the  sword  by  Morales  the 
barbarian.  While  these  executions  were  taking  place, 
Bolivar  went  before  the  government  of  Nueva  Granada, 
where  he  was  appointed  Captain  General.  Little  rould 
he  accomplish  at  this  time,  due  to  the  civil  war  which  was 
then  going  on,  so  he  sailed  for  Jamaica,  whence  he  was  to 
return  later  to  prepare  for  his  third  campaign  into 
Venezuela. 

At  about  this  time  (1815)  the  Spaniards  received  rein- 
forcements, with  the  addition  of  10,000  veteran  troops  under 
Morillo,  which  together  with  the  Caracas  reinforcements, 
formed  an  army  of  16,000  well  equipped  men,  5,000  of  whom 
marched  against  Cartagena,  which  was  abandoned  by  its 
garrison  after  a  siege  which  lasted  180  days.  Six  thousand 
people  died  of  hunger  and  disease,  besides  400  old  men, 
women,  and  children  who  were  beheaded  under  Morales' 
orders. 

In  1816,  Bolivar  returned  for  his  third  campaign,  with  re- 
sources furnished  him  by  Petion  of  Santo  Domingo.  He 
met  with  reverses  at  the  beginning  and  dispersed  his  troops 
under  the  command  of  his  lieutenants  Mariiio,  Piar  and 
Paez,  and  set  sail  for  Haiti,  due  to  discord  in  the  ranks. 

On  being  summoned  again,  Bolivar  presented  himself 
at  Barcelona,  Venezuela,  in  1816.  He  failed  in  his  first  at- 
tempt to  capture  Caracas  and  asked  the  protection  of  his 
general  "Black"  Piar,  who  was  the  owner  of  the  llanos  of 
the  Orinoco,  and  who  advised  Bolivar  to  start  operations  in 
the  region  of  Guayana,  to  which  Bolivar  acceded.     Piar  next 


74         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

defeated  the  Spaniards  at  San  Felix,  and  shortly  after,  on 
being  found  guilty  of  conspiracy  against  Bolivar,  was  ar- 
rested and  executed. 

Bolivar,  later  reinforced  by  Paez,  mustered  an  army  of 
4,000,  which  was  subsequently  annihilated  by  a  surprise 
attack  at  Rincon  de  los  Toros.  Bolivar,  then,  with  only  forty 
men  he  was  able  to  get  together,  marched  into  San  Fer- 
nando.    So  ended  the  year  1819. 

Bolivar's  next  reinforcements  came  with  the  addition  of 
General  Santander  of  Nueva  Granada,  who  joined  him  at 
the  foot  of  the  Andes,  completing  an  army  of  2,500  men  for 
the  invasion  of  Nueva  Granada,  which  was  being  defended  by 
Viceroy  Samano  with  an  army  of  4,000  men.  After  many 
minor  incidents,  Bolivar  routed  the  Spaniards  at  Boyacd, 
where  he  captured  1,600  prisoners  along  with  their  leader, 
Barreiro.  Bolivar  then  fought  his  way  triumphantly  into 
Bogota,  and  on  the  8th  of  September  issued  a  proclama- 
tion announcing  the  consummation  of  the  union  of  Venezuela 
and  Nueva  Granada  under  the  name  of  Repiiblica  de 
Colombia. 

Bolivar  proposed  before  the  Congress  of  Angostura 
(Venezuela)  the  union  of  The  Republic  of  Colombia  with 
Venezuela,  Nueva  Granada,  and  Quito  (now  Ecuador), 
which  proposal  was  enthusiastically  and  unanimously 
adopted.  The  confederacy  covered  115,000  square  leagues 
with  a  population  of  8,000,000.  Its  banner  was  that  of 
Miranda,  hoisted  by  him  in  1808.  Bolivar  was  appointed 
Provisional  President  on  the  17th  of  December,  1819,  and 
military  operations  were  immediately  begun  against  Morillo, 
who  had  12,000  men  under  him. 

The  Northern  and  Southern  Armies  of  Liberation  Shake 
Hands  in  Peru 

It  was  at  this  historical  moment,  which  turned  out  to  be 
the  most  important  of  the  revolution,  that  the  Generals,  San 
Martin  in  the  South  and  Bolivar  in  the  North,  without 
previous  notice  or  agreement,  simultaneously  started  both 


VENEZUELA,  COLOMBIA  AND  ECUADOR        75 

campaigns  against  Peru,  which  was  then  the  principal 
Spanish  fortification  in  America. 

Bolivar  started  from  Venezuela,  by  destroying  the  enemy 
forces  numbering  5,000  men  at  Carabobo  on  the  24th  of 
June,  1821.  This  triumph  permitted  him  to  enter  Caracas 
a  second  time  as  the  victor.  It  proved  to  be  the  decisive 
battle  for  the  independence  of  Colombia. 

The  Congress  of  Cucuta  sanctioned  the  new  constitution 
and  elected  Bolivar  first  President  for  a  term  of  four  years. 
He  delegated  his  oflice  to  his  Vice-President,  Santander,  and 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  troops  assigned  to  liberate 
Ecuador. 

On  the  completion  of  arrangements  of  a  few  unimportant 
details  in  Ecuador,  Bolivar  named  General  Sucre  as  the 
leader  of  the  military  campaign.  The  first  few  engagements 
proved  disastrous  to  the  American  patriots.  General  Sucre 
was  defeated  at  Huachi  and  was  compelled  to  seek  aid  from 
San  Martin,  who  sent  General  Arenales  to  the  Quito  frontier, 
thence  to  Guayaquil.  Thus,  1,500  men  of  the  Army  of  the 
South  joined  forces  with  the  Army  of  the  North  during 
January,  1822,  to  combat  Spanish  rule. 

Following  the  conference  held  in  Guayaquil,  Bolivar 
moved  to  Peru,  and  at  the  head  of  his  army  triumphed  at  the 
battle  of  Junin.  On  being  defeated,  the  Viceroy  La  Serma 
decided  to  concentrate  his  forces  at  the  Apurimac  and  there 
fight  a  decisive  battle.  He  opened  his  offensive  campaign 
in  December.  The  opposing  armies  met  on  the  pampas  of 
Ayacucho,  the  Spanish  under  the  command  of  the  Viceroy, 
while  General  Sucre  assumed  command  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can forces.  General  Cordoba,  a  young  man  twenty-five  j^ears 
of  age,  but  of  magnetic  personality,  raised  his  hat  high 
in  the  air  and  imperatively  commanded :  "March  on !  Arms 
at  will!  Conquerors  dash  I"  and  with  one  accord,  3,000 
Colombian  bayonets  advanced  with  such  vigorous  energy 
that  they  demolished  everything  in  their  way.  The  Viceroy, 
desirous  of  checking  defeat,  dashed  amid  his  troops  to  en- 
courage them,  but  was  himself  wounded  and  taken  prisoner. 


76         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PKESENT 

The  Spanish  army  capitulated.     Officers  and  men  were  taken 
prisoners  and  the  liberty  of  Peru  accomplished. 

Alto  Peru,  to  do  honor  to  its  liberator,  changed  its 
old  historic  name  to  that  of  '^Republica  de  Bolivia"  and  the 
name  of  its  capital  to  "Sucre"  in  honor  of  the  victorious 
General  of  Ayacucho. 

Sarmiento's  and  Rodo's  Opinion  of  San  Martin 

AND   BOLfVAR 

Don  Domingo  Faustino  Sarmiento,  native  of  Argentina 
and  one  of  the  most  brilliant  intellects  which  South  America 
has  produced,  said  in  criticising  a  biography  of  the  Hero  of 
the  North :  "In  that  biography,  as  in  all  the  others  that  have 
been  written  about  him,  I  have  seen  the  European  General, 
the  Marshals  of  the  Empire,  a  less  colossal  Napoleon,  but  I 
have  failed  to  see  the  South  American  caudillo  (the  chief- 
tain) in  a  revolt  by  the  masses  of  the  people.  I  see  a  repro- 
duction of  Europe,  but  nothing  that  reveals  America  to  me." 

"Venezuela  has  plains,  pastoral  life,  barbarian  life,  purely 
American — from  these  the  Great  Bolivar  sprang  forth." 

"The  manner  in  which  the  European  and  American 
writers  have  written  the  history  of  Bolivar,  corresponds 
to  San  Martin  and  other  military  men  like  him.  San 
Martin  was  not  popular  as  a  'Caudillo,'  he  was  truly  and 
only  a  General.  He  had  received  his  education  in  Europe 
and  came  to-South  America  at  the  time  his  country  was  in  a 
state  of  revolution,  enabling  him  to  organize  the  army  at  his 
ease  under  the  European  plan,  and  conducting  the  fighting 
in  the  regular  way  according  to  prescribed  rules." 

"San  Martin's  expedition  into  Chile  was  a  methodically 
conducted  conquest  like  that  of  Napoleon  into  Italy.  But 
if  San  Martin  had  had  to  command  'guerrilleros,'  and  had 
been  defeated  at  one  point,  then  joined  a  group  of  'llaneros' 
farther  on,  they  would  have  hanged  him  on  the  second 
attempt." 

"The  world  does  not  yet  know  Bolivar,  the  real  Bolivar, 
and  it  is  quite  probable  that  when  the  true  interpretation 


VENEZUELA,  COLOMBIA  AND  ECUADOR        77 

of  his  higher  psychological  being  is  vividly  explained,  he 
may  then  appear  even  more  extraordinary  and  great." 

The  celebrated  Uruguayan  writer  Jos6  Enrique  Rod6 
says  of  Bolivar : 

"Great  in  thought,  great  in  action,  great  upon  being  glori- 
fied, great  upon  being  victimized  by  misfortune;  great  in 
exalting  that  which  might  be  impure  in  the  souls  of  the 
great,  and  great  to  endure  in  loneliness  and  in  death,  the 
tragic  atonement  of  greatness.  Many  there  are  whose  lives 
show  a  more  perfect  harmony,  a  finer  moral  or  esthetic  sense, 
but  few  that  manifest  such  resolute  character  of  greatness 
and  of  strength,  and  few  that  control  with  like  fortitude  the 
sympathetic  feeling  of  heroic  imagination." 

"Bolivar,  the  revolutionst,  the  bushwhacker,  the  general, 
the  leader  of  men,  the  tribune,  the  legislator,  the  president, 
all  in  one  and  all  in  his  own  style,  represents  an  unparalleled 
originality  which  assumes  and  includes  that  of  the  land 
upon  which  he  lived  and  of  the  means  he  had  at  his  com- 
mand. He  did  not  fight  like  the  European  strategist, 
neither  did  he  employ  for  his  visions  as  a  founder  other 
than  the  divided  elements  furnished  by  institutions  founded 
on  universal  experience  and  justice,  and  neither  did  he  leave 
in  the  ensemble  any  image  like  anything  that  had  gone 
before.  That  is  why  we  dote  upon  him,  that  is  why  he  con- 
trols us  and  why  he  will  always  remain  as  the  hero  par 
excellence,  representative  of  eternal  Spanish-American 
union.  He — far  better,  for  reason  of  his  greatness  and  still 
more  so  for  his  eminence  above  the  sectional  leaders  in 
whom  semi-barbaric  originality  became  individualized — per- 
sonifies that  which  is  characteristic  and  peculiar  in  our 
history.  The  clay  of  America,  pierced  by  the  breath  of 
genius,  transformed  its  flavor  and  its  aroma  into  qualities  of 
the  spirit  which  exhaled  in  a  vivid  flame,  an  original  and 
distinct  heroic  personality." 

"The  Alcibiades,  the  writer,  the  statesman  of  Caracas,  was, 
whenever  the  occasion  demanded  it,  the  intrepid  gaucho  of 
the  pampas  of  the  North — el  llanero  (the  Plainsman)." 


I 


SECOND  PART 
SOUTH  AMERICA  PRESENT 


CHAPTER  IV 

OROGRAPHY  AND  GENERAL  CONFIGURATION  OF 
SOUTH  AMERICA 

SUMMARY 

South  America  compared  with  other  continenta — Structure  of  both  Americas — Descrip- 
tion of  its  Andes — Mountain  systems  of  Brazil — Has  the  Andean  relief  changed? — South 
American  appearance  during  the  tertiary  epoch — The  South  American  of  the  tertiary 
age — Change  of  hving  conditions  on  the  Patagonian  and  Bolivian  plateaus. 

South  America  Compared  with  Other  Continents 

The  continent  of  South  America,  like  the  continents  of 
North  America  and  Africa,  is  triangular  in  shape  but 
smaller  than  either  of  these  two,  as  the  following  figures 
show: 


CONTINENT8 

AREA  IN  8Q.  KILOMETERS 

POPULATION 

Millions 

Milliona 

Asia 

42 

920 

Africa 

31 

144 

North  America. . . . 

26 

133 

South  America. . . . 

18 

52 

Europe 

10 

450 

Australia 

8 

5 

South  America  ranks  fourth  in  size,  is  two-thirds  as  large 
as  North  America  and  as  large  as  Europe  and  Australia 
combined. 

Structure  of  Both  Americas 

The  structure  of  South  America  resembles  that  of  North 
America.  On  the  west,  the  high  range  of  mountains  called 
the  Andes  corresponds  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  Range  of  the 
latter,  though  the  former  range  has  higher  peaks,  and 
plateaus  of  from  3,000  to  4,000  meters  elevation.    On  the 

81 


82         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

east,  the  range  of  mountains  along  the  coast  of  Brazil,  which 
vary  from  1,000  to  2,000  meters  above  sea-level,  corresponds 
to  the  Allegheny  Range  of  the  North  American  continent. 
(Figure  No.  1.) 

Description  op  the  Andes 

The  Andean  Range  and  its  branches  cover  one-ninth  of 
the  territory  of  South  America,  or  an  approximate  area  of 
two  million  square  kilometers,  attaining  its  widest  expanse 
in  Bolivia,  where  it  extends  from  the  Real  (Royal)  or  Interior 
Range  to  the  Western  or  Exterior  Range,  a  distance  of  750 
kilometers — region  of  Lake  Titicaca,  18°  south.  The  length 
of  the  Andes  from  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  at  the  southern 
extremity  of  Chile  to  Cape  Gallinas  at  the  extreme  northern- 
most point  of  Colombia,  is  7,500  kilometers.  They  are  the 
highest  man-inhabited  mountains  in  the  world,  where  human 
habitations  are  to  be  found  at  more  than  4,000  meters  above 
sea-level.  One  of  these,  the  station  of  Punto  Alto,  is  at  4,788 
meters  elevation  on  the  slope  of  Titicaca  on  the  Antofagasta- 
La  Paz  railroad.  At  5,592  meters  above  sea-level,  latitude 
16°  in  Peru,  there  is  a  small  settlement  of  Indian  herders  of 
whom  The  Geographical  Magazine  made  special  mention  in 
1917.  The  large  cities  of  Potosi,  La  Paz  (capital  of  Bolivia) 
and  Pimo  are  approximately  at  4,000,  3,000  and  4,260 
meters  elevation,  respectively.  It  can  be  said  of  Bolivia 
that  it  is  the  roof  of  America,  as  Pamir  is  the  roof  of  the 
world. 

The  Andes  mountains  are  the  second  highest  in  the  world, 
next  to  the  Himalayas  in  Asia.  Mount  Aconcagua,  the  high- 
est peak,  which  is  7,1.30  meters  above  sea-level,  is  in  latitude 
32°  S.,  in  line  with  another  high  peak.  Mount  Tupungato,  at 
6,510  meters  elevation,  and  also  in  line  with  the  city  of 
Mendoza.  Next  in  height  to  Mount  Aconcagua  comes  Cerro 
de  Huascan,  in  Peru,  at  6,721  meters,  and  Mount  Sorata,  in 
Bolivia,  at  6,017  meters  elevation.  The  average  cubical  di- 
mensions of  the  Andes  mountains  in  kilometers  are. 7,000  in 
length,  160  in  width,  and  4  in  height. 


RELIEF  MAP  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


RELIEF  MAP  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 


OROGRAPHY  AND  GENERAL  CONFIGURATION  83 

PRINCIPAL  MOUNTAINS  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 


Andes  Meters 

Aconcagua   ^'l^*^ 

TupuDgato 6,550 

Cerro  Mercedario 6,670 

Cerro  Porongoe 6,052 

Cerro  Juucal    6,070 

Mont  Piasia 0,772 

Cerro  de  Colorados 6,115 

Volcan  LluUaico    6,620 

Volcan  Lincancaur 6,000 

Moute  Illimani  (Bolivia) 6,400 

Monte  Sorata  "        6,617 


Andes  Meters 

Volcan  Sajaraa  (Bolivia) 6,424 

Volcan  Misti  (Peru) 6,100 

Nudo  Cuzco        "      6,000 

Cerro  Ampato    "      6,950 

Huascan  "      6,700 

Chimborazo  (Ecuador) 6,310 

Cotopaxi  "         5,943 

Sierra  Tocul  (Colombia) 5,984 

Nevado  Tolima        "  5,584 

Columna,     Sierra     Nevada     (Vene- 
zuela)   5,000 


Mountains  of  Bbazil 

Meters 

Serra  dos  Orgaos 2,391 

Agulhas  Negras 2,994 

Serra  de  Pirineos 2,932 

AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES  OF  SOUTH  AND 
NORTH  AMERICA,  1919 


Square  Kilometera 

(1  Square  Mile  = 

2.5S96  Square 

Kilometers) 

United  States 110,000,000 

Brazil 8,550,000 

Argentine 2,950,000 


Mexico . 

Peru 

Bolivia .  . . 
Colombia . 
Venezuela . 

Chile 

Ecuador . . 
Paraguay . 
Uruguay. . 


1,987,000 

1,769,000 

1,470,000 

1,300,000 

1,020,000 

757,000 

307,000 

253,000 

187,000 


Inhabitants 


110,000,000 

24,000,000 

8,000,000 

15,000,000 

4,600,000 

2,650,000 

5,700,000 

2,800,000 

4,000,000 

1,500,000 

800,000 

1,500,000 


Inhabitants 

Square 
Kilometer 

12.0 
2.8 
2.6 
8. 
2.7 
1.8 
4.4 
2.7 
5.2 
5. 
3. 


PRINCIPAL  RIVERS— SOUTH  AMERICA 


Kilometers 

Amazon 5,000 

Parand 4,500 

Madeira 3,240 

Purus 3,000 

San  Francisco 2,900 

Yapura 2,800 

Tocantins 2,500 

Orinoco 2,250 

Paraguay 2,200 

Xingu 2,100 


Ealometers 

Jurua 2,000 

PUcomayo 2,000 

Ucayale 1,900 

River  Negro  of  Amazon 1,700 

lea  o  Putimiayo 1 ,600 

Tapajos 1,500 

Uruguay 1,500 

Mamord 1,500 

Beni 1,300 

Magdalena 1,300 


Mountain  Systems  op  Brazil 

The  range  of  mountains  on  the  coast  of  Brazil,  which, 
together  with  all  its  ramifications,  form  the  backbone  of 
Brazil,  cover  a  much  larger  area  than  the  Andes  mountains, 
in  fact  twice  the  area,  or  about  4,000,000  square  kilometers, 
though  considerably  lower  than  the  Andean  range. 


Has  the  Andean  Relief  Changed? 

Why  is  the  mountainous  region  of  South  America  the  most 
densely  pojjulated?     Have  living  conditions  changed  in  the 


84         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

Bolivian,  Andean,  and  Patagonlan  regions?  It  will  be 
noticed  that  the  most  densely  populated  districts  of  South 
America  are  the  tropical  mountainous  regions,  particularly 
in  Brazil,  Bolivia,  Peru,  Ecuador  and  Colombia.  The 
climate  of  the  plains  of  the  Amazon  is  extremely  warm  and 
moist.  It  is  specially  remarkable  that  the  indigenes  of 
Bolivia  and  Peru  have  preferred  the  almost  barren  frozen 
Andean  Punas  to  the  fertile  plains,  which,  under  cultivation, 
will  yield  the  largest  variety  of  vegetable  products  known  to 
man,  but  which  climate,  as  that  of  the  plains  of  the  Amazon, 
is  exceedingly  warm.  It  was  in  the  arid  frigid  regions  of 
the  high  mountains  of  Peru  that  the  Incas  founded  their 
highly  cultured  empire,  not  unlike  the  kingdoms  of  the 
Pharaohs  of  ancient  Egypt. 

The  famous  ruins  of  Tiahuanaco  of  Bolivia,  which  are  now 
in  a  desolate  waste,  represent  the  handicraft  of  a  civiliza- 
tion preceding  that  found  there  by  the  Spaniards  at  the  time 
of  the  exploration  of  the  new  world.  But  it  can  hardly  be 
believed  that  the  nation,  which  had  developed  into  such  a 
powerful  empire,  could  have  prospered  as  the  Empire  of  the 
Incas  did  in  a  semi-sterile  region  such  as  it  is  now.  There- 
fore, the  belief  that  the  region  of  Bolivia  has  passed  through 
a  transformation  in  the  upheaval  of  its  soil,  from  an  eleva- 
tion of  1,000  to  2,000  meters,  to  more  than  3,000  meters  to 
which  it  has  risen  since  that  unknown  imperial  epoch,  up  to 
the  present  time,  and  that  the  whole  Andean  region  has  had 
a  like  change.  When  comparing  the  present  soil  formation 
of  Patagonia,  so  desolate  and  arid  that  Darwin  called  it 
"Accursed  Land,"  with  that  of  the  same  region  which  pro- 
duced the  gigantic  fossil  fauna,  among  which  remains  we 
find  the  mammoth  animals  which  only  luxuriant  forests 
could  feed,  and  these  very  forests  being  now  in  a  petrified 
form  by  the  changes  which  thousands  of  years  have  wrought, 
it  can  not  be  doubted  that  the  "punas  heladas"  of  Bolivia 
have  undergone  a  similar  change. 

European  science,  influenced  by  religious  tradition,  located 
the  primitive  home  of  man  in  Asia,  and,  later,  when  the  first 


OKOGKAPHY  AND  GENERAL  CONFIGURATION  85 

fossil  remains  of  man  were  fouud  at  Simia  together  with 
Proboscidea  and  colossal  Rodens  and  Edentates,  the  wise 
men  were  then  of  the  opinion  that  Europe  was  where  man 
first  appeared  on  earth.  Ameghino,  noted  Argentine  natur- 
alist, on  discovering  the  largest  ossarium  of  big  mammals 
which  has  yet  been  found,  revealed  the  fact  that  the  Pampa 
Argentina  is  the  most  complete  page  in  the  history  of  the 
world,  for  the  reason  that  it  has  never  been  entirely  sub- 
merged, and  beginning  with  the  cretaceous  period  of  the 
secondary  epoch,  the  various  species  of  animals  continued 
to  record  their  evolution  in  this  part  of  America  without  in- 
terruption for  millions  of  years.  So  that  on  the  side  of  the 
Andean  range,  which  sprang  forth  from  the  waters  during 
the  Azoic  or  lifeless  era,  are  the  tertiary  and  quaternary 
terrains,  which  were  the  cradle  of  reptiles,  mammals  and 
man.  Thus,  it  is  explained,  that  the  present  soil  of  Argen- 
tina, Bolivia  and  Brazil  constitutes  today  the  largest  fossil 
animal  graveyard  in  the  world,  and  which  has  contributed 
more  than  1,500  species  of  fossils  such  as  are  not  found  any- 
where else  on  the  globe.  It  means,  in  fact,  that  South 
America  has  contributed  one-third  of  the  species  of  fossil 
remains  which  are  known  today. 

At  the  time  of  the  secondary  epoch,  when  the  cretaceous 
terrains  of  the  Patagonia  region  appeared  above  the  water, 
there  was  no  such  land  as  the  Northern  Hemisphere  with 
exception  of  a  few  islands  widely  scattered  in  the  northern 
vast  watery  expanse.  What  now  constitute  the  mainlands 
of  Europe,  Asia  and  North  America  were  yet  under  water. 
The  Southern  Hemisphere  consisted  then  of  a  large  tract  of 
continental  land  including  what  is  now  Patagonia,  the 
Pampas  and  a  part  of  Brazil,  which  were  united  to  Africa 
by  a  body  of  land  which  is  known  today  under  the  name  of 
Arquelensis,  just  as  Patagonia  w^as  united  to  Australia  and 
New  Zealand  by  the  lands  of  the  Antarctic,  which  were 
under  the  icy  regions  recently  discovered  by  Admundsen,  the 
noted  Arctic  explorer.  The  present  conditions  of  the  Pata- 
gonia  region   are   not    altogether   adapted   for   a    stupen- 


86         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

dous  development  of  animal  life,  which  were  just  the  reverse 
conditions  during  the  secondary  epoch.  The  Andean  range 
was  very  low  and  did  not  obstruct  the  moist  winds  from  the 
Pacific  Ocean  as  is  the  case  today.  The  climate  was  moist 
and  warm  and  the  vegetation  compared  with  the  flora  which 
we  find  today  growing  on  the  plains  of  the  Amazon.  The 
forests  of  palm  trees  and  coniferous  plants  are  to  be  found 
in  a  petrified  state,  covering  large  areas,  among  which  are 
also  found  large  trunks  of  the  hardness  of  flint. 

We  find,  in  these  petrified  forests  buried  in  the  reddish 
sandstone,  the  petrified  skeletons  of  mammoth  animals  which 
today  are  extinct,  such  as  the  Dinosaur u,  or  huge  crocodiles, 
measuring  30  meters  in  length ;  the  Miolania,  gigantic 
turtle  with  horns  like  those  of  an  ox,  and  measuring  four 
meters  in  diameter;  the  Physornis,  a  runner  bird  of  prey 
twice  as  large  as  the  iiandu  (American  ostrich)  of  the 
pampas ;  the  Peludos,  of  the  size  of  an  ox ;  the  Parastrapote- 
therium,  which  was  much  larger  than  the  elephant  of  the 
present  day;  the  Proroterido,  the  primitive  horse;  and  the 
Pyrotherium,  which  on  migrating  into  Africa  and  later  into 
Asia  was  transformed  into  Mastodon  and  Dinoterium. 

Appearance  op  South  America  During  the  Tertiary  Epoch 

During  the  tertiary  epoch  the  appearance  of  the  whole 
world  changed.  The  Northern  Hemisphere  became  conti- 
nental, the  Arquelensis,  which  joined  South  America  and 
Africa,  disappeared  and  South  America  took  its  present 
aspect.  Therefore,  the  Hehreiv  Cosmogony  results  entirely 
in  error.  The  southern  part  of  the  New  World  was  the  first 
habitation  of  animal  life  including  man,  for  as  man  was 
one  of  the  last  mammals,  it  is  not  probable  that  on  the 
South  American  continent  becoming  the  primitive  home  of 
the  bigger  species  of  mammals,  not  excluding  the  ape, 
man  would  not  have  appeared  also.  The  Trigodon,  another 
monster  about  the  size  of  the  rhinoceros,  inhabited  the  Pata- 
gonian  region  during  the  tertiary  period,  also  the  Gliptodon, 
a  huge  tatti  or  armadillo  or  "mulita,"  the  shells  of  which 


OROGRAPHY  AND  GENERAL  CONFIGURATION  87 

were  used  as  houses,  according  to  all  indications,  by  the 
primitive  man  of  the  pampas,  his  contemporary,  as  is  proven 
by  the  human  remains  found  with  fragments  of  burnt  earth 
which  were  part  of  ancient  fireplaces,  with  the  remains  of 
bones  chipped  and  broken  by  blows,  and  those  of  the  primi- 
tive man  measuring  one  meter  in  height  (about  39  inches). 
There  are  also  found  the  complete  skeleton  of  the  Mega- 
therium, measuring  eight  meters  in  length,  and  the  Toxodon, 
corresponding  in  size  to  the  hippopotamus,  an  aquatic  mak- 
ing its  abode  in  river  streams.  Some  of  these  skeletons 
have  been  found  with  the  points  of  stone  spears  and  arrow- 
heads of  the  first  man  of  Patagonia,  buried  in  the  backbone 
and  the  bones  of  the  leg.  Also,  skeletons  of  the  Smilodon  of 
the  tiger  family,  with  canine-teeth  in  the  shape  of  a  saw, 
and  much  larger  than  the  species  of  Asia  and  Africa. 

The  South  American  op  the  Tertiary  Age 

The  Scientific  Congress,  which  met  in  Tucumdn  in  De- 
cember, 1910,  and  which  was  attended  by  the  geologists, 
zoologists  and  other  men  of  science  of  Argentina,  declared 
the  Toxodon  to  be  of  the  tertiary  epoch,  adding  that  the  spear 
and  arrowheads  found  imbedded  in  the  bones  were  genuine. 
Therefore,  it  remains  a  proven  fact  that  the  man  of  the 
tertiary  epoch  was  an  inhabitant  of  South  America,  and 
that  he  is  not  the  exclusive  patrimony  of  the  so-called  Old 
World,  as  is  claimed  by  the  wise  men  of  Europe. 

Ameghino,  the  naturalist,  has  received  the  fullest  confir- 
mation, since  his  death  in  1911,  regarding  his  conjecture  of 
the  existence  of  man  in  the  Patagonia  region  during  the 
tertiary  era. 

The  celebrated  naturalist,  Agassiz,  had  already  given  it 
as  his  opinion  that  it  would  have  been  possible  for  man  to 
have  lived  in  America  during  the  tertiary  era,  as  Voltaire 
also  stated  in  1775  that  man  could  have  appeared  at  the 
same  time  in  Europe  and  in  America,  and  asked — "Could 
not  man  have  appeared  on  both  continents  at  the  same  time, 


88         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

just  as  the  fly  did?"  All  that  has  been  said  has  its  attesta- 
tion in  the  museums  of  La  Plata  and  Buenos  Aires,  where 
they  have  complete  skeletons  of  the  animals  described  and 
that  of  the  ape  fossil  of  the  Santa  Cruz  river  in  Patagonia, 
which,  according  to  Mahoudeau,  instructor  in  the  Paris 
School  of  Anthropology,  has  more  characteristics  in  common 
with  man  than  any  other. 

Change  of  Living  Conditions  on  the  Patagonian  and 
Bolivian  Plateaus 

As  in  the  case  of  the  Bolivian  plateau,  it  will  perhaps  be 
possible  to  demonstrate  later  on  that  the  same  conditions 
prevailed  there  as  in  Patagonia  and  that  conditions  of  life  in 
general  were  very  different  from  what  they  are  today.  It  is 
probable  that  the  same  uijheaval  that  caused  the  change  in 
elevation  of  the  Bolivian  plateau,  also  caused  the  change  in 
living  conditions  in  the  Patagonian  territory,  and  that  the 
change  took  place  simultaneously  in  both  places. 

Were  it  not  so,  it  could  not  be  explained  how  the  great 
Bolivian  plateau  could  have  been  settled  during  the  time  of 
the  Incas,  inasmuch  as  the  severity  of  the  climate  and  the 
barrenness  of  the  soil  were  such  as  to  make  the  territory  in- 
adequate for  the  primitive  inhabitants'  first  abode,  when 
they  could  have  selected  the  Andean  slopes  and  valleys  with 
an  extraordinarily  fertile  soil  and  a  milder  and  healthier 
climate  than  that  of  India,  which  had  been  the  home  of 
hundreds  of  millions  of  men  since  the  remotest  times.  Be- 
sides, the  formation  of  the  soil  of  the  pampean  region,  that  is 
to  say,  its  geological  structure  and  composition,  is  identical 
with  that  of  the  eastern  plains  of  Bolivia,  Paraguay  and  a 
large  area  of  the  Amazonian  region.  The  soil  is  of  the  same 
yellowish  color  and  composed  principally  of  sand  And  clay 
in  almost  equal  proportions.  The  soil  is  rich  in  fossils  of 
similar  mammals,  small  shells  forming  large  banks  and 
other  mollusks  of  salt  and  fresh  water  varieties,  proving  con- 
clusively that  these  areas  had  been  covered  by  water  from 
the  sea  and  by  river-floods  alternately. 


OROGKAPHY  AND  GENERAL  CONFIGURATION  89 

The  extensive  salt-pits  of  the  central  part  of  the  Argentine 
republic,  which  cover  an  arc  circle  700  kilometers  in  length 
within  the  provinces  of  Rioja,  Catamarca,  Tucuman  and 
Santiago  del  Estero,  are  not  deej)  deposits  of  salt,  btit  a  thin 
layer  of  sea-water  salt,  like  that  found  in  the  salt-pits  of 
Jujuy,  Salta,  and  on  the  great  Bolivian  plateau,  which  de- 
jjosits  were  probably  formed  by  the  salt  which  had  been 
dissolved  by  sea-water. 

The  Andean  range  was  much  lower  than  it  is  today,  both 
in  the  northern  and  southern  parts  of  the  present  terri- 
tory of  Argentina,  particularly  in  the  north,  where  the 
ground  was  so  low  that  the  waters  from  the  Pacific  Ocean 
would  through  several  narrow  passages  inundate  the  terri- 
tory of  northern  Argentina  and  southern  Bolivia.  We  find 
today  in  southern  Patagonia  the  big  lake  Buenos  Aires, 
which  is  crossed  by  parallel  46°  S,,  at  227  meters  above 
sea-level,  like  a  gigantic  condor  climbing  the  Andes,  the 
waters  of  this  lake  flowing  into  the  Pacific  through  the 
Barker  or  Las  Heras  River  and  into  the  Atlantic  through  the 
Deseado  River.  This  communication  between  the  two 
oceans  had  been  maintained  at  many  points  of  the  Andean 
range  before  the  upheaval,  which  was  the  fundamental  and 
immediate  cause  for  the  stopj^age  of  abundant  rains  easterly 
bound  for  the  Patagonian  region,  and  resulting  in  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  gigantic  flora  which  fed  the  largest  fauna 
of  mammals  that  has  ever  inhabited  the  globe.  The  Andean 
valleys  of  the  Patagonian  region,  which  were  thus  visited  by 
the  rain-laden  winds  from  the  Pacific  Ocean,  are  today  a  vast 
expanse  of  fantastic  petrified  flint  formations  of  what  was  a 
wonderful  Patagonian  forest  in  prehistoric  times.  The  west- 
ern slope  of  the  region  of  Patagonia  which  is  in  Chilean 
territory,  is  noted  for  its  magnificent  forests  which  receive 
copious  rains.  This  region  is  very  similar  to  that  of  North 
America  along  the  Pacific  coast  states  of  California,  Oregon 
and  Washington  and  the  western  coast  of  Canada. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  VAST  NATURAL  REGIONS  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 

SUMMARY 

Description  of  its  vast  regions:  Region  of  the  Andes,  Region  of  the  Plains,  divided  into 
the  Plains  of  the  La  Plata  or  the  Pa7npas,  the  Plains  of  the  Amazon,  the  Plains  of  the  Orinoco; 
How  was  the  soil  of  the  Pampas,  which  cover  one-third  of  the  territory  of  South  America, 
formed? — Opinions  of  Darwin,  D'Orbigny.  Bravard,  Burmeister  and  Ameghino,  regarding 
this  formation — Analogous  formation  of  the  loess  and]the  soil  of  the  Pampas — Burmeister's 
error  regarding  the  fertility  of  the  Pampean  soil.  Fossils  of  the  Pampean  soU — The  Pata- 
gonia of  today  and  what  it  was  during  the  tertiary  epoch — The  plateaus  of  the  Brazilian 
System. 

Region  of  the  Andes 

As  hereinbefore  stated,  the  mountainous  regions  of  the 
Andes  and  its  branches,  which  measure  7,500  kilometers  in 
length,  cover  an  area  of  2,000,000  square  kilometers,  reach- 
ing to  a  height  of  7,130  meters  above  sea-level  at  the  Mount 
of  Aconcagua  (Argentina)  and  more  than  6,000  meters  ele- 
vation at  other  points  in  Argentina,  Bolivia  and  Peru.  The 
Andean  range,  which  is  several  hundred  meters  in  height  at 
the  extreme  southern  portion  of  Patagonia,  increases  gradu- 
ally in  height  until  it  reaches  parallel  32°  S.,  with  Mounts 
Aconcagua  7,130  meters  high,  and  Mounts  Tupungato,  Mer- 
cedario  and  Juncal  at  more  than  (5,000  meters  above  the  sea. 
It  again  attains  considerable  height  farther  north  at  the 
Bolivian  frontier,  with  higher  peaks  in  Bolivia  and  Peru. 

From  the  extreme  southern  point  of  the  continent  the 
range  is  a  heavy,  massive  main  line  till  it  reaches  parallel  27° 
S.,  where  it  divides  into  two  branches — the  eastern  branch, 
which  is  farther  from  the  Pacific,  is  the  Cordillera  Real 
(Royal  Range)  in  Bolivia.  Between  the  two  ranges  lies  the 
great  Bolivian  Plateau,  which  is  800  kilometers  in  length 
north  and  south  and  more  than  eighty  thousand  square  kilo- 
meters in  area. 

90 


the   Brazilian   frontier  impede  further  navigation,   makes 
the  Guajamirin  Railway  to  Port  Velho  an  indispensable 


VAST  NATURAL  REGIONS  91 

In  Peru  there  are  three  parallel  branches  of  the  Andes, 
between  which  lie  the  extensive  plains  through  which  run 
the  big  rivers  Marau6n,  or  Amazon  (tive  thousand  kilometers 
long),  the  Huallaga  and  the  Ucayali,  which  reach  far  into 
the  interior  of  the  country  and  are  large  navigable  streams, 
particularly  the  Amazon,  which  admits  steamers  of  18  feet 
draught. 

The  Andean  valleys  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  are  extremely 
fertile,  producing  cofifee,  cocoa,  cotton,  rubber  and  all  the 
tropical  products.  The  valleys  of  the  eavstern  slope  of  Bolivia, 
called  "Yungas,"  are  the  most  fertile  regions  on  the  globe. 
The  Pacific  coast  along  the  northern  part  of  Chile  and  Peru 
has  very  little  rainfall,  but  tropical  products,  such  as 
sugar-cane,  cotton,  cocoa,  etc.,  are  raised  in  the  regions 
where  they  have  irrigation.  The  climate  of  the  valleys  and 
coast  is  very  warm,  but  no  fevers  prevail.  Mining  is 
the  main  source  of  wealth  in  these  two  countries,  as  well 
as  in  Chile.  These  are  the  largest  producers  of  copper, 
lead,  zinc,  silver  and  tin.  Chile  and  Peru  produce  nitre 
and  guano,  the  latter  being  used  as  a  fertilizer.  Peru 
and  Bolivia  also  i^roduce  the  well-known  coca  (from  which 
cocaine  is  extracted),  quinine  and  other  medicinal  plants. 

The  Yungas  and  the  Bolivian  plains,  where  the  tributaries 
of  the  Madeira  River  (tributary  of  the  Amazon),  3,000  kilo- 
meters in  length  and  navigable  as  far  as  the  Bolivian  fron- 
tier, yield  a  large  variety  of  vegetables,  which  cannot  be 
exported  either  to  the  adjoining  countries,  to  Europe,  or  to 
North  America,  due  to  want  of  transportation  facilities. 
Rubber  is  the  only  product  exported,  as  its  commercial  value 
warrants  the  payment  of  high  freight  rates.  The  tributaries 
of  the  Madeira  River  iire  the  rivers  Beni,  Mamore  and  Purus, 
and  the  tributary  of  the  latter — Acre  River — which  flows  in 
the  territory  of  the  Acre,  is  remarkable  for  its  abundant 
rubber  production.  These  rivers  are  navigable  for  small 
vessels,  but  the  fact  that  the  cataracts  of  the  Madeira  at 
the  Brazilian  frontier  impede  further  navigation,  makes 
the  Guajamirin  Railway  to  Port  Velho  an  indispensable 


92         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

route  for  the  products  of  Bolivia  that  are  exported  to  Eu- 
rope and  North  America  via  the  Madeira  and  Amazon. 

The  Andean  valleys  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  which  face  east- 
wardly,  have  a  larger  rainfall  than  those  facing  westwardly 
or  toward  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  are  therefore  more  fertile. 
Peru,  having  an  outlet  through  the  Marafion  and  its  tribu- 
taries to  the  Atlantic,  and  through  its  numerous  ports  on 
the  Pacific,  can  export  its  products  to  all  parts  of  the  world, 
yet  its  principal  source  of  wealth,  like  that  of  Bolivia,  lies 
in  its  minerals.  The  plateaus,  which  are  at  3,000  and  4,000 
meters  elevation,  have  the  richer  mines  and  are  consequently 
the  places  which  are  more  densely  populated.  The  climate 
at  4,000  meters,  which  is  the  region  of  the  Puna  Brava,  is  not 
mild,  the  mean  temperature  being  from  six  to  ten  degrees 
centigrade.  On  the  Puna,  at  less  than  4,000  meters  and 
not  under  3,000,  the  mean  temperature  is  from  twelve  to 
fourteen  degrees  centigrade. 

The  rainy  season  starts  in  November  and  lasts  until  the 
following  March.  The  hot  months  of  the  year  are  from  Au- 
gust to  November.  The  months  of  May,  June  and  July  are 
cold  with  frequent  snows.  The  region  of  perpetual  snow 
is  above  6,000  meters,  and  still  higher  on  the  western  slope. 
The  Central  plateau  of  Bolivia  is  the  region  for  products 
such  as  potatoes  and  other  vegetables  which  constitute  the 
principal  food  of  the  Indian,  who  also  cultivates  quinoa  and 
maize  in  the  valley. 

Ecuador  is  also  in  the  Andean  region.  The  Andes  are 
here  divided  into  two  large  branches  which  enclose  a  narrow 
valley  called  El  Callejon.  The  two  ranges  called  Oriental 
and  Occidental,  beginning  from  the  equator  as  far  as  parallel 
3°  south,  are  united  by  a  chain  of  high  mountains  called 
Parano  de  Azuay,  4,500  meters  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
The  highest  peak  in  Ecuador  is  the  majestic  Mount  Chim- 
borazo,  0,400  meters  high.  The  most  dreaded  volcanoes  of 
South  America  which  are  in  the  republic  of  Ecuador  are  the 
Cotopaxi,  Snni>ay,  Tunguragua,  Cayamb^,  and  also  below  the 
equator  the  Pichincha  and  others.     It  could  be  called  the 


VAST  NATUKAL  REGIONS  93 

"Land  of  Volcanoes  and  Earthquakes."  Here  we  also  find 
the  most  densely  populated  region — the  plateau  or  Puna, 
which  has  a  mild  climate,  though  just  below  the  equator. 

Quito,  the  capital,  which  is  3,000  meters  above  sea  level 
and  at  a  few  minutes  distance  from  the  equator,  has  by 
reason  of  its  altitude  a  mean  temperature  of  15°  centigrade, 
which  is  somewhat  colder  than  the  temperature  of  Monte- 
video and  Buenos  Aires,  latitude  35°  south,  and  the  Tambo 
of  Antisana  at  4,500  meters  elevation  has  the  mean  tempera- 
ture of  Petrograd — i°  centigrade, 

Ecuador  has  two  seasons,  the  rainy  or  winter,  and  the  dry 
or  summer  season,  the  latter  being  also  the  windy  season. 
The  winter  lasts  from  December  till  May,  and  summer  the 
remainder  of  the  year.  The  region  along  the  coast  has  very 
little  rainfall,  and,  as  has  been  observed  for  several  years 
past,  there  seems  to  be  a  tendency  to  its  complete  cessation, 
as  happened  in  Peru, 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Oriental  region  of  the  plains  has  a 
heavy  rainfall  which  feeds  many  large  rivers,  tributaries  of 
the  Amazon,  such  as  the  Napo,  Pastassa,  Santiago  and 
Tigre. 

The  boundary  between  Ecuador  and  Peru,  which  nature 
has  pointed  out  by  the  Maranon,  or  Amazon,  has  been  the 
source  of  a  long  dispute  between  the  two  countries,  and  in 
fact,  Peru  exercises  authority  over  the  Port  of  Iquitos  and 
the  territory  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Amazon,  farther 
north  beyond  the  bend  of  this  river  where  it  changes  its 
course  from  a  northerly  to  an  easterly  direction.  So,  part 
of  the  tributaries  of  the  Amazon — the  rivers  Napo,  Tigre, 
Pastassa  and  Santiago — are  in  the  zone  occupied  by  Peru 
where  it  joins  Colombia,  with  which  country  Peru  also  has  a 
dispute  on  boundaries.  It  is  possible  that  all  these  questions 
of  boundaries  between  Peru  and  Chile  for  Tacna  and 
Arica,  and  the  boundary  disputes  between  Venezuela  and 
Colombia  and  between  Colombia  and  Ecuador  with  Peru, 
will  be  submitted  to  arbitration  before  the  tribunal  of  the 
League  of  Nations, 


94  SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

Whether  this  or  some  other  means  will  be  the  solution  of 
these  boundary  controversies,  it  can  be  affirmed  at  this  time 
that  settlement  will  be  arranged  before  long,  as  the  epoch  of 
wars  and  conquests  has  terminated  since  the  intervention 
of  the  United  States  of  America  in  the  European  War.  We 
still  remember  President  Wilson's  comment  at  the  time  of 
his  departure  for  Europe  to  the  Allied  Congress,  when  he 
said  in  substance  that  the  governments  of  America  which 
will  nof  try  by  all  means  to  prevent  their  peoples  from  being 
incited  into  war  to  settle  their  international  disputes  will 
be  responsible  to  the  world  for  their  failure.  These  remarks 
were  prompted  by  the  outrages  committed  by  the  mob  of 
Peru  and  Chile  in  the  Tacna  and  Arica  dispute. 

Since  the  opening  up  of  the  Panama  Canal,  the  Republic 
of  Ecuador  has  planned  to  turn  the  commercial  route 
to  the  Pacific,  and  to  this  effect  a  railroad  line  has 
been  constructed  from  Quito  to  Guayaquil  and  another  one 
is  projected  to  extend  from  Port  Bolivar  on  the  Gulf  of 
Guayaquil,  to  the  Santiago  River,  a  tributary  of  the  Amazon. 
The  Andean  range  at  Pasto  in  southern  Colombia  separates 
into  three  smaller  ranges  called  Oriental,  Central  and  Occi- 
dental, all  being  less  than  6,000  meters  high.  These  valleys, 
which  extend  north  and  south,  are  drained  by  the  Magdalena 
and  its  tributary,  the  Cauca,  neither  one  of  them  being  diffi- 
cult to  navigate.  The  Magdalena  is  navigable  only  by  small 
steamers  as  far  as  Girardot,  which  is  the  port  for  Bogota, 
the  capital  of  Colombia.  The  Atrato  River  also  runs  in  a 
northerly  direction,  as  does  the  Magdalena,  and  flows  into 
the  Sea  of  the  Antilles.  The  climate  and  products  compare 
with  those  of  Ecuador,  and  in  addition,  Colombia  produces 
platinum  and  emeralds,  which  are  not  to  be  found  anywhere 
else  in  the  Andean  region.  On  the  east  side  of  the  Andes,  as 
in  the  other  countries  of  the  Andean  region,  are  immense 
plains  drained  by  the  tributaries  of  the  Amazon,  remarkable 
for  their  fertility  and  variety  of  vegetable  products,  among 
which  rubber  is  the  most  valuable. 

The  princii)al  commercial  products  of  the  Andean  valley 


VAST  NATURAL  REGIONS  95 

are  coffee,  cocoa  aud  quiuiiie.  The  Putumayo  and  Yapnra, 
tributaries  of  the  Amazon,  aud  the  Inirida  and  other  tribu- 
taries of  the  Orinoco,  drain  this  region.  The  eastern  range 
branches  off  into  northern  Venezuela  aud  forms  a  mountain- 
ous zone  to  the  coast  of  the  S.ea  of  Antilles;  it  has  fertile 
plains,  and  its  climate  aud  corresponding  products  vary  with 
the  altitude,  as  in  the  other  mountainous  districts  of  the 
Andes.  No  point  in  Venezuela  is  over  6,000  meters  above 
sea-level.  The  Orinoco,  which  is  2,000  kilometers  long,  drains 
the  plains  extending  south  of  the  Andes  as  far  as  the  Parime 
range,  which  separates  them  from  the  plains  of  the  Amazon. 
The  Orinoco  is  a  large  navigable  stream  and  a  ver\^  im- 
portant commercial  route  to  the  Atlantic.  The  plains  of  the 
Orinoco  are  adapted  to  cattle-raising. 

A  resume  of  all  that  has  been  said  regarding  the  coun- 
tries in  the  Andean  region  north  and  south  of,  and  including 
Bolivia,  and  which  we  find  to  have  the  same  structure,  can 
be  given  as  follows : 

First.  Plateaus  or  punas,  varying  from  a  mild  to  a  very 
cold  climate,  scanty  vegetation,  large  mineral  wealth  aud  a 
dense  population  dependent  on  the  mining  industry. 

Second.  Valleys  of  the  Andes  at  a  low  elevation,  with  an 
abundance  of  tropical  vegetable  products,  such  as  coffee, 
quinine,  sugar,  cotton,  etc.,  cultivated  with  great  care  and  in 
suflSciently  large  quantities  to  supply  local  and  foreign 
markets. 

Third.  The  plains  drained  by  the  tributaries  of  the  Am- 
azon, which  among  other  products  furnish  high-grade  lumber 
and  rubber  to  the  markets  of  the  world. 

The  Plains 

The  plains  extend  from  one  end  of  the  continent  to  the 
other,  a  distance  of  7,000  kilometers  north  and  south  and  a 
maximum  width  of  5,000  kilometers  east  and  west  in  the 
region  of  the  Amazon  along  the  line  of  the  equator,  occupy- 
ing two-thirds  of  the  continental  area,  or  12,000,000  square 
kilometers  in  all.     The  plains  are  divided  into  three  large 


96         SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

zones,  or  slopes,  called  Plains  of  the  Orinoco,  Plains  of  the 
Amazon,  and  Plains  of  the  La  Plata  or  the  pampas. 

The  plains  of  the  Orinoco  occupy  more  than  1,000,000 
square  kilometers,  mostly  in  Venezuela.  The  land  is  well 
adapted  to  cattle-raising,  though  the  climate  is  very  warm, 
which  with  its  long  dry  spells  makes  it  unsuitable  for  Eng- 
lish breeds,  which  the  packing  industry  prefers.  Native 
cattle  can  be  raised  successfully  as  in  Paraguay  and  Brazil. 

Humboldt,  in  describing  the  plains  of  the  Orinoco,  says: 
"When,  through  the  vertical  effect  of  the  sun's  rays  which 
no  cloud  can  obstruct,  the  parched  weed  falls  like  dust  and 
the  hardened  soil  cracks  open  as  if  disturbed  by  a  violent 
earthquake,  then  if  opposing  winds  clash  on  the  surface,  and 
the  clashing  terminates  in  a  circular  motion,  the  whole  plain 
presents  an  extraordinary  spectacle.  Vapor-like,  the  sand 
ascends  with  the  rarified  whirlwind,  perhaps  charged  with 
electricity,  like  a  dark  funnel-shaped  cloud  with  its  point 
sliding  over  the  earth  like  the  roaring  water-spout,  which  is 
so  much  dreaded  by  the  experienced  navigator.  The  skies, 
which  appear  dei)ressed,  cast  only  a  semi-day  light  blurred 
and  livid  across  the  desolate  plains.  The  horizon  seems  to 
close  in  abruptly,  tightly  hugging  the  desert  and  squeezing 
the  heart  of  man.  Suspended  in  atmosphere  which  the 
horizon  conceals,  the  burning,  dust-like  sand  feeds  the  sultry 
heat  in  the  air.  Instead  of  coolness,  the  eastern  breezes 
bring  on  new  heat  from  some  place  long  under  the  rays  of 
the  sun.  The  water-puddles  which  the  palm-tree  shades,  but 
which  the  sun  has  robbed  of  its  verdure,  gradually  disap- 
pear and  go.  Animal  life  falls  into  a  lethargy;  the  crocodile 
and  the  boa  lying  deep  in  the  dried  clay  appear  to  have  lost 
all  sense  of  motion.  Everywhere  the  drought  announces 
death,  and  everywhere  it  besets  the  terrified  traveler,  who  is 
deluded  by  the  resplendence  of  the  rays  of  reflected  light  giv- 
ing the  appearance  of  an  undulated  surface.  Cattle  and 
horses  roam  aimlessly  about  enveloped  in  clouds  of  dust, 
tormented  with  hunger  and  an  unquenchable  thirst.  The 
former  bellowing  plaintively,  the  latter  with  necks  stretched 


VAST  NATUKAL  REGIONS  97 

against  the  wind  lustily  inhaling  the  air,  trying  to  locate 
some  pool  of  water  not  yet  swallowed  by  the  rays  of  the  sun. 
When  after  a  long  drought  the  welcome  rainy  sea.son  arrives 
the  scene  of  the  desert  changes.  The  pale  blue  of  the  sky 
which  until  then  had  been  devoid  of  clouds,  takes  on  a  lighter 
hue.  The  Southern  Cross  is  hardly  discernible  in  the  night 
across  the  darkened  space  and  hardly  has  the  dampness 
touched  the  surface  of  the  earth  when  the  mist-laden  desert 
is  to  be  seen  covered  with  a  variety  of  grasses.  Later  the 
moistened  clay  rises  bejond  the  edge  of  the  swamps;  a  sud- 
den noise  is  then  heard  as  of  an  explosion  of  a  small  marshy 
volcano,  as  the  soil  rises  and  shoots  up  in  the  air.  He  who 
happens  to  be  familiar  with  this  phenomenon  rushes  away 
on  its  being  announced,  as  it  means  that  a  monstrous  aquatic 
serpent  or  a  crocodile  is  leaving  its  grave  as  the  first  water 
ripples  form  and  awaken  it  from  its  seeming  death." 

The  plains  of  the  Amazon,  which  have  an  abundance  of 
vegetation,  occupy  half  of  the  area  of  Brazil  and  a  large  zone 
in  the  adjoining  countries — Colombia,  Ecuador,  Peru  and 
Bolivia — or  about  7,000,000  square  kilometers,  drained  by 
the  great  river  and  its  big  tributaries.  They  slope  slightly 
from  west  to  east  and  territory'  on  both  the  northern  and 
southern  hemispheres  is  drained  by  tributaries  of  the 
Amazon.  These  rivers  form  the  largest  fluvial  network  in 
the  world  with  50,000  kilometers  of  navigable  waters,  the 
combined  length  of  which  could  circle  the  globe  at  the  equa- 
tor with  10,000  remaining  kilometers,  which  is  the  distance 
from  the  La  Plata  to  the  City  of  London.  Their  great  vege- 
table wealth  has  only  in  part  been  developed  for  want  of 
transportation  facilities,  as  is  the  case  in  many  other  wealth- 
producing  districts  of  South  America.  No  other  part  of  the 
world  offers  as  fine  a  grade  and  as  large  a  variety  of  lumber, 
including  cedar,  pine,  ebony,  lignum-vitse,  jacarandd  and 
rosewood.  The  industries  are  limited  to  the  extraction  of 
India  rubber,  rosin,  etc.  The  climate  of  the  Amazonian 
region  is  equatorial,  that  is,  it  is  a  uniform  high  tempera- 
ture.   There  is  no  dry  season  as  in  the  tropical  regions;  the 


98  SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

rainfall  is  heavy  the  entire  year.  Agassiz,  who  explored 
this  region,  gave  the  name  of  "Marea  Semestral"  (semi- 
annual tide)  to  the  flood-tides  of  the  northern  and  southern 
tributaries,  which  alternate  every  six  months.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  the  Amazon  runs  parallel  to  the  equator  and 
that  its  affluents  lie  in  both  hemispheres.  The  rains  follow 
the  sun  and  every  six  months  the  rainfall  is  heavier  alter- 
nately in  each  hemisphere.  The  heavy  rains  temper  the 
climate  and  so  It  is  not  as  warm  as  it  is  in  other  equatorial 
regions.  According  to  Agassiz,  the  maximum  temperature 
is  not  over  30°  centigrade  and  the  climate,  though  somewhat 
unhealthy,  is  not  unsuited  to  human  habitation,  as  are  parts 
of  India  and  certain  equatorial  regions  of  Africa.  So,  one 
half  of  Brazil  is  covered  by  the  plains  of  the  Amazon  and 
the  other  half  by  the  mountainous  region  of  the  coast. 

The  variety  of  vegetation  distributed  over  these  valleys  is 
so  great  that  it  divides  them  into  belts,  as  follows: 

First — The  Palm  Tree  Region  occupies  a  wide  strip  on  the 
banks  of  the  Amazon  in  Brazil,  Colombia,  Ecuador  and  Peru, 
and  produces  a  diversity  of  tropical  fruits,  among  which  are 
bananas,  dates  and  cocoanuts,  and  another  palm,  some  of 
which  grow  to  twenty-five  meters  in  height,  others  very  small 
with  leaves  so  wide  that  the  Indians  use  them  for  roofing 
their  houses.  Agassiz  counted  more  than  one  hundred  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  palm  trees  in  this  region. 

Second — The  Region  of  Tree-like  Ferns  occupies  a  belt  800 
kilometers  wide  across  the  whole  width  of  the  Amazonian 
slope. 

Third — The  Region  of  Virgin  Forests  has  an  immense 
wealth  of  gums,  rosins  and  medicinal  plants,  and  extends 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon  to  Bahia.  This  is  the  zone 
of  the  gum-extracting  industry. 

Fourth — The  Coffee,  Tobacco  and  Sugar  Region  includes 
the  plains  and  valleys  of  eastern  Bahia  as  far  as  Santa  Cata- 
lina.  Four-fifths  of  the  coffee  consumed  throughout  the 
world  comes  from  Brazil  and  most  of  it  is  exported  through 
Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Santos. 


VAST  NATURAL  REGIONS  99 

Fifth — The  Cotton  Region  extends  from  Pari\  to  Rio  <le 
Janeiro. 

The  Pampas  of  the  La  Plata 

The  pampas  of  the  La  Plata,  which  extend  from  the  Brazil- 
ian transversal  region   (Sierra  Parecis),  latitude  20°  S.  to 
parallel  40°   S.,  a  distance  of  2,000  kilometers  north  and 
south,  are  noted  for  their  big  forests,  which 
Origin  of  the  ]{q  [^   f\^Q  uorthern   part  and   are  named 

Pampean  Soil  ^ 

Chaco  and  Paraguay,  and  which  produce  the 
hardest  woods  known — the  lapacho,  fiandubay,  quebracho, 
etc. — and  are  also  noted  for  their  magnificent  prairies 
which,  lying  in  the  southern  part,  are  nowhere  equalled  in 
the  raising  of  live  stock  for  meat  purposes,  and  in  the  pro- 
duction of  wool.  Live-stock  raising  has  become  a  scientific 
industry  and  the  agricultural  industry  has  been  developed 
to  the  extent  that  Argentina  is  to-day  one  of  the  largest 
grain-producing  countries  of  the  world.  This  is  "Pampa 
Fertil,"  which  occupies  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  La 
Plata  basin,  including  the  whole  of  the  Province  of  Buenos 
Aires  as  far  as  the  Negro  River.  This  is  the  most  favoretl 
of  all  the  regions  of  Argentina  as  to  fertility  of  soil,  mildness 
of  climate,  abundant  rains  and  accessibility  for  communi- 
cation with  the  rest  of  the  world,  through  its  large  and 
important  ports — Buenos  Aires,  Rosario,  La  Plata  and 
Bahia  Blanca.  Its  climate  compares  with  that  of  southern 
Europe ;  a  sub-tropical  climate,  in  other  words,  a  temperate 
climate  with  no  cold  season.  Four  months,  June,  July,  Au- 
gust and  September,  the  thermometer  registers  a  mini- 
mum temperature  of  5°  centigrade.  It  rains  the  year  round, 
with  a  heavier  rainfall  during  the  Spring  and  Summer, 
though  more  rainy  days  during  the  winter  months.  There 
are  four  mouths  with  a  mean  temperature  of  20°  C.  Few 
days  during  the  summer  season  have  a  temperature  exceed- 
ing 35°  and  less  than  5°  during  the  Winter  season,  along  the 
eastern  border.  Farther  in  the  interior,  in  Cordoba  for  in- 
stance, the  maximum  is  43°  C.  and  the  minimum  8°  C.  below 


100       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

zero;  at  San  Luis  40°  maximum  above  and  7°  minimum 
below  zero;  Victoria,  in  the  pampean  territory,  40°  above, 
11°  below.  The  maximum  temperature  of  Montevideo  is  38° 
and  Buenos  Aires  40°,  which  takes  place  every  five  years  or 
more.  In  fact,  from  a  climatological  standpoint,  Monte- 
video is  the  most  fortunate  city  in  the  world,  for  added  to 
its  advantage  in  having  a  sub-tropical  climate,  the  fact  that 
it  is  a  peninsula  on  high  ground  and  open  to  the  ocean  winds, 
it  enjoys  a  maritime  climate  during  the  Summer  months 
when  those  winds  prevail.  The  reader  may  refer  to  L.  C. 
BoUo's  ''Climatologia  Platense,"  Montevideo,  1916,  Libreria 
Barreiro  y  Ramos. 

The  northern  part  of  the  La  Plata  plains  (Chaco,  Para- 
guay, Matto  Grosso  of  Brazil,  eastern  plains  of  Bolivia) 
which,  as  we  have  said,  is  covered  hj  forests  among  the  most 
valuable  in  the  world  from  a  standpoint  of  lumber  material, 
is  called  the  Northern  Littoral,  which  it  derives  from  its  big 
streams  the  Parand  and  the  Paraguay,  which,  together  with 
the  Uruguay,  form  the  great  estuary  of  the  La  Plata.  The 
Paraguay,  a  tributary  of  the  Parauil,  penetrates  into  the 
heart  of  the  continent  and  is  navigable  almost  to  its  source, 
its  principal  ports  being  Cuyabd  and  Corumb^,  which  are  in 
the  heart  of  Brazil.  Port  Suarez,  which  is  opposite  Corumb4 
on  the  plains  of  Bolivia,  is  a  promising  port  for  commercial 
communication  between  this  region  and  the  ports  of  Monte- 
video and  Buenos  Aires.  Cuyabd  is  in  latitude  16°  S.  while 
Montevideo  is  in  latitude  35°  S.,  or  a  distance  of  nearly  20 
degrees,  approximately  1,200  miles,  which  have  the  service 
of  several  steamship  lines.  This  is  the  future  great  impor- 
tant route  from  the  La  Plata  to  the  Amazon,  as  the  Arinos 
River,  a  tributary  of  the  Tapajos,  one  of  the  largest  tribu- 
taries of  the  Amazon  is  just  a  few  miles  distant  from  the 
Paraguay  where  canal  communication  could  be  established 
to  connect  all  the  South  American  streams.  Captain  Bossi 
has  written  a  book  in  regard  to  navigation  of  upper  Para- 
guay, giving  the  details  as  to  the  facilities  for  the  enterprise. 
It  is  yet  remembered  in  Brazil  that  pieces  of  artillery  have 


VAST  NATURAL  REGIONS  101 

been  transported  from  Cuyabd  via  the  Paraguay  and  after 
crossing  a  few  miles  by  land  have  been  shipped  at  Port  Velho 
on  the  river  Arinos,  the  tributary  of  the  Tapajos,  finally 
reaching  the  Port  of  Pard  or  Belem,  via  the  Amazon.  The 
reader  can  readily  form  an  idea  of  how  important  these  navi- 
gation connections  would  be  within  the  interior  of  the 
South  American  continent  through  lands  which  embrace  all 
climatic  belts  with  an  abundance  of  the  most  valuable  prod- 
ucts of  the  soil,  over  an  area  more  than  2,000  miles  in  length 
from  the  equator  south  to  Buenos  Aires  and  Montevideo,  a 
distance  of  35  degrees.  This  northern  littoral  has  a  warm 
climate  with  its  dry  season  during  the  Winter.  A  large  por- 
tion of  Matto  Grosso,  lying  in  the  valley  of  the  La  Plata  in 
Brazil,  has  an  equatorial  climate  with  a  mean  annual  tem- 
perature of  20°  C,  and  rain  the  year  round. 

Referring  again  to  the  soil  of  the  Fertil,  or  Southeastern 
Pampa :  Throughout  the  whole  expanse  of  this  vast  plain, 
under  a  growth  of  vegetable  mould  and  under  the  sandy 
marshes  and  shell  banks,  the  soil  is  composed  of  a  clayish 
sand  to  a  depth  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  meters,  and  as 
much  as  fifty  meters  in  some  places.  It  varies  in  color  from 
a  dark  gray  in  certain  parts  to  a  whitish  and  yellowish  hue 
in  others.  This  soil  formation  lies  uncovered  on  the  banks 
of  the  rivers  and  on  the  hills  and  high  ground  where  the 
mould  has  been  carried  away  by  the  water.  Large  forma- 
tions of  solid  rock,  called  Toscas,  composed  of  lime,  clay  and 
sand,  are  also  found.  The  pampean  soil  does  not  contain 
fossil  sea-life,  but  a  great  quantity  of  land  fossil  mammals, 
such  as  the  Megatherium,  Toxodon,  and  other  gigantic  ani- 
mals, which  we  have  already  mentioned.  Fresh  water  mol- 
lusks  and  varieties  of  salts  have  been  found.  The  soil  con- 
tains a  certain  amount  of  lime  which  emits  carbonic  acid 
whenever  brought  in  contact  with  sulphuric  acid.  D'Orbigny 
referred  to  this  soil  as  "Pampean  Formation"  and  Darwin 
called  it  "Pampean  Slime."  The  former  considered  it  supe- 
rior tertiary  soil,  while  the  latter  believed  it  to  be  a  late 
quaternary.     Bravard,    another    great    naturalist,    was    in 


102       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

accord  with  D'Orbigny.  Burmeister,  at  one  time  Director 
of  the  Buenos  Aires  Museum,  claimed  it  was  quaternary 
and  corresponding  to  the  Deluge  period  in  Europe.  The 
artesian  wells  in  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires  show  this  pampean 
formation  to  be  thirty  meters  in  depth,  and  in  excavations 
between  the  La  Plata  and  the  Tandil  ridge  of  mountains  it 
is  found  to  have  a  depth  of  fifty-six  meters.  This  kind  of  soil 
is  not  to  be  found  beyond  the  Colorado  River,  which  boun- 
dary Darwin  pointed  out  as  being  the  extent  of  this  forma- 
tion. At  Mendoza,  which  is  800  meters  above  sea-level,  the 
formation  described  is  fourteen  meters  deep  and  has  the 
same  gigantic  fossil  mammals:  Megatherium,  Mastodon, 
Gliptodon,  etc.  The  soil  formation  in  the  San  Luis  district 
is  the  same,  according  to  Burmeister.  It  is  also  found  be- 
tween Entre  Rios  and  Santa  Fe,  between  the  rivers  Uruguay 
and  Parani,  in  the  Oriental  Republic,  a  large  part  of  the 
Chaco,  in  Paraguay,  and  the  eastern  plains  of  Bolivia.  This 
soil  formation  continues  to  a  great  height  on  the  Mount  of 
Montevideo.  The  southern  part  of  the  Republic  of  Uruguay 
is  also  covered  with  humus,  or  vegetable  mould.  It  is  found 
on  the  river  Negro,  near  Mercedes  in  Uruguay,  along  the 
rivulets  Coquimbo  and  Sarandi,  and  at  Talar  where  the  large 
deposits  of  gigantic  fossil  mammals  are  found.  But  nowhere 
in  the  pamj^ean  soil  is  there  any  fossil  sea-life,  which  proves 
that  it  does  not  owe  its  formation  to  the  action  of  sea-water. 
Not  a  vestige  of  marine  infusoria  is  found,  even  with  the  aid 
of  the  miscroscope.  The  question  arises,  How  was  the  pam- 
pean soil  formed?  According  to  D'Orbigny,  Darwin,  Bra- 
vard,  Burmeister,  Ameghino  and  other  sages,  several  have 
been  the  factors  which  have  contributed  to  the  formation  of 
this  soil.  Ameghino,  who  knew  more  about  the  soil  by  rea- 
son of  his  having  always  lived  in  the  country  and  who  there- 
fore made  a  closer  and  longer  study  of  it,  says  that  many 
have  been  the  causes  which  together  have  shared  in  its  forma- 
tion, principally  the  action  of  the  winds  (the  theory  also 
advanced  by  Bravard)  which  have  carried  the  material  dur- 
ing heavy  windstorms,  as  in  the  case  of  the  "loess"  which 


VAST  NATURAL  REGIONS  103 

form  the  soil  of  China.  It  represents  the  accumulation  of 
material  which  the  winds  have  piled  up  for  centuries.  The 
loess  of  the  Rhine  are  of  like  origin. 

Richtofen,  the  geologist,  was  the  first  to  demonstrate  the 
origin  of  the  loess  caused  by  the  winds  in  China,  to  which 
conclusion  he  arrived  after  a  very  close  study  of  the  Chinese 
soil.  The  loess  soil  which  formed  a  border  around  the  des- 
erts of  Central  Asia  specially  attracted  his  attention.  The 
wind-storms  of  that  region  caused  him  to  understand  the 
action  of  the  winds  on  soil  formation.  The  dust  which  is 
carried  by  the  winds  is  the  last  product  in  the  pulverization 
of  the  sand.  It  is  carried  to  the  edge  of  the  dry  belt,  where 
it  precipitates  through  the  action  of  the  rain,  or  falling  by  it^ 
own  weight  becomes  fastened  to  the  weeds,  the  roots  of 
which  have  left  as  traces  the  little  canals  characteristic  of 
the  loess  soil.  By  erosion  the  rain-waters  and  the  river- 
streams  have  transported  the  loess  formation  for  long  dis- 
tances and  dei)Osited  it  in  the  form  of  alluvions  at  the  bot- 
tom of  lakes  and  on  the  banks  of  rivers.  According  to 
Fritch,  the  volume  of  dust  which  was  transported  in  1863 
by  the  trade-winds  of  northeastern  Sahara  to  the  Canary 
Islands  amounted  to  4,000,000  cubic  meters.  This  dust  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  loess  of  China,  which  form  its  yellow 
soil,  similar  to  that  of  the  pampas.  Loess  soil  formation 
covers  at  least  20  per  cent  of  the  surface  of  China,  the  region 
of  the  Mississippi,  the  pampas  and  other  regions.  He  who 
has  witnessed  the  cyclones  produced  by  the  Zonda  winds  of 
the  plains  of  San  Juan  in  the  republic  of  Argentina,  which 
are  similar  to  those  of  the  simoom  of  the  Sahara,  can  very 
well  appreciate  the  powerful  action  of  the  wind  as  a  carrier 
of  the  material  which  has  made  the  pampean  soil  what  it  is. 
Ameghino  affirms  that  the  pampean  soil  is  not  of  marine 
origin  but  that  it  is  the  result  of  the  combined  action  of  the 
rains,  rivers,  winds  and  the  subterranean  forces,  which  have 
caused  depressions  and  upheavals  of  the  soil.  He  has  shown 
that  the  soil  at  the  foot  of  the  Cordoba  ridge  is  a  quartz 
sand  which  gradually  changes  to  impalpable  mud  at  the 


104       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

mouth  of  the  Parana.  This  proves  the  fact  that  the  greater 
part  of  the  material  which  forms  the  pampean  soil  between 
Cordoba  and  Rosario  comes  from  the  decomposition  of  rock 
of  the  Cordoba  ridge  of  mountains.  The  fragments  of  rock 
from  the  mountains  first  form  into  boulders,  the  separate 
particles  of  material  being  carried  away  in  the  form  of  sand 
to  a  greater  distance,  and  the  material  which  comes  from  the 
decomposition  of  feldspar  is  carried  to  the  valley  of  the 
ParanA,  where  part  of  it  remains,  and  part  of  it,  together 
with  clay  which  the  Parana  carries  from  the  north,  is 
finally  deposited  on  the  plains  of  Buenos  Aires.  So  it  is 
everywhere;  the  pampean  soil  contains  a  larger  proportion 
of  sand  as  it  nears  the  mountains  and  a  larger  proportion  of 
clay  the  farther  the  distance  from  the  mountains  that  formed 
it.  The  soil  of  the  republic  of  Uruguay,  which  is  farther 
away  from  the  mountain  range  is  much  harder,  due  to  the 
large  percentage  of  clay  over  sand.  The  action  of  the  carry- 
ing winds  is  very  evident  in  many  places  where  the  sands 
and  dirt  have  formed  deep  banks  where  fossil  remains  are 
buried. 

Among  the  opinions  given  by  men  of  science,  regarding 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  of  the  pampas,  it  is  well  to  note  the 
serious  error  committed  by  Burmeister  when  he  asserted 
in  his  important  work,  "Physical  Description  of  the  Republic 
of  Argentina,"  published  forty  years  ago,  that  the  soil  of  the 
pampas  was  unfit  for  cultivation  and  that  live-stock  raising 
would  be  the  only  industry.  It  was  Burmeister's  belief  that 
plants  inferior  to  those  native  to  the  soil  should  be  the  kind 
cultivated,  and  cited  the  lands  of  Brazil,  where  the  gigantic 
forests  were  cut  down  and  in  their  place  coffee-trees  and 
sugar-cane  were  planted.  He  said :  "The  pampas  produce 
only  miserable  grasses  consisting  of  plants  inferior  to  wheat 
that  the  planters  want  to  cultivate.  These  attempts  will 
have  no  success.  These  are  positive  facts,"  he  said,  "which 
are  proven  by  Liebig's  Agricultural  Chemistry."  But  ex- 
perience has  refuted  the  erroneous  statement  which  so  in- 
jured Argentina,  for  to-day  the  pampas  lead  the  world  in 


VAST  NATUKAL  KEGIONS  105 

grain  production,  sending  five  million  tons  of  wheat,  com, 
barley  and  oats  to  European  and  North  American  markets. 

Fossil  Eemains  of  the  Pampean  Soil 

In  conclusion,  and  so  that  the  North  American  reader  may 
be  able  to  compare  its  antiquity  with  that  of  the  soil  of  the 
Northern  continent,  we  will  briefly  enumerate  the  fossil 
mammals  of  the  pampean  soil,  as  follows: 

Primates — Besides  the  fossil  remains  of  man,  there  are  in 
Brazil  and  Argentina,  the  Protopithecus  of  Brazil  (Lund) 
and  the  Protopithecus  Bonaerensis  (Gervais  and  Ame- 
ghino),  which  compare  with  the  Anthropomorphus.  There 
are  four  species  of  Primates  (Cebus)  and  other  apes  of 
Brazil. 

In  North  America  the  true  fossil  ape  of  the  tertiary  age  is 
not  known,  and  the  apes  of  today,  natives  of  Central  America 
and  Mexico,  are  South  American  types.  In  Europe  and 
Asia  they  appear  in  the  Miocene  epoch,  but  these  species  have 
no  predecessors  in  the  most  ancient  formations  of  that  same 
region,  and  it  is  evident  that  they  came  from  South  America, 
where  they  had  lived,  crossing  over  the  Arquelensis  or  the 
continent  which  united  America  and  Africa.  The  apes 
called  "Homunculideos"  or  "Hombrecillos  (little  meu )  de 
Santa  Cruz"  in  Patagonia,  are,  in  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Mahou- 
deau,  Instructor  in  the  Paris  School  of  Anthropology,  the 
species  which  bear  closer  resemblance  to  man  and  which 
show  closer  relation  to  the  common  trunk  from  which  man 
and  ape  originated.  It  is  possible  that  the  predecessor  of 
man  had  its  origin  in  the  Pampa  Argentina. 

Cheiroptera — Seven  species  of  bats  have  been  found. 

Carnivorous — Smilodon  populator,  stronger  than  the  lion 
of  today,  and  stronger  than  the  Smilodon  which  is  now  on 
exhibition  at  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  in  New  York 
City,  the  fossil  remains  of  which  were  found  on  soil  of  the 
United  States  of  America. 

Canis — Eleven  species  of  dogs  and  the  fossil  Canis  Azarae. 

Artotheriums — Gigantic  bears  unlike  the  present  species. 


106       SOUTH  AMEIUCA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

Tipoteridos — Order  discovered  by  Gervais  and  Ameghiuo. 
Includes  the  tipoterium,  of  which  there  are  three  species, 
and  the  Toxodon,  of  which  five  species  have  been  found  corre- 
sponding in  size  to  the  rhinoceros. 

Solipede — Three  species  of  horses  have  been  found, 
among  them  the  Equus  Argentinus  (by  Burmeister).  The 
South  American  horse  of  the  present  day  was  introduced 
by  the  Spaniards. 

Macrauquenia — Twice  as  high  as  the  horse,  and  combining 
the  characteristics  of  the  giraife,  camel  and  llama. 

Prohoscides — There  are  two  species  of  Mastodons:  Hum- 
boldt and  Andium.     No  fossil  elephants  have  been  found. 

Ruminants — There  are  several  species  of  Auchenia, 
Cierves,  Antelopes,  etc. 

Edentates  (toothless) — The  Megatherium  family. — The 
American  Megatherium  is  much  larger  than  the  elephant. 
It  is  on  exhibition  in  nearly  all  the  museums  of  the  world. 
There  are  five  smaller  species,  and  several  of  the  Milodon 
type.  Among  the  Edentates,  mention  must  be  made  of 
several  of  the  animals  with  armour-like  coverings  not  un- 
like that  of  the  Armadillo.  These  are  the  Gliptodon  species 
with  an  armour  covering  which  in  some  places  measures 
two  meters  in  thickness;  exhibited  in  the  museums  of  La 
Plata  and  Buenos  Aires.  These  armour  coverings  were 
used  as  tents  by  the  fossil  man  of  the  pampas  of  the 
tertiary  age,  as  verified  by  marks  of  the  handiwork  of 
primitive  man,  and  which  can  not  be  disputed. 

The  Patagonian  Region  of  the  Present  Day  and  AVhat 
It  Was  in  the  Remote  Past 

Patagonia,  which  was  at  one  time  one  of  the  most  fertile 
regions  on  the  globe,  is  today  a  vast  arid  tract,  almost  unin- 
habitable for  reason  of  its  sudden  and  extreme  climatic 
changes  and  limited  rainfall.  The  winter  temperature  falls 
as  low  as  SO'^  C.  below  zero  at  Colonia  Sarmiento  and 
Bueii  Pastor  on  the  Chubut,  and  to  28°  C.  below  in  many 
places;  the  summer  temperature  rises  at  times  to  40°  C. 


VAST  NATUKAL  REGIONS  107 

above  zero  at  points  on  the  rivers  Chubut  and  Negro,  and  in 
the  southern  pampas.  This  contrast  is  due  to  the  dryness 
of  the  air,  the  rainfall  being  exceedingly  low  throughout  the 
Patagonian  region  excepting  on  the  Andean  valleys  of  the 
Neuquen  and  a  few  other  places.  Onelli,  the  Argentine 
explorer,  who  served  as  a  member  of  the  Commission  on 
boundaries  with  Chile,  and  is  therefore  thoroughly  familiar 
with  this  region,  says  in  his  recent  book,  "Climbing  the 
Andes,"  B.  A.,  1916  edition :  ''Patagonia  has  a  uniformly 
monotonous  and  gloomy  aspect ;  its  step-like  graded  plateaus 
alternating  with  its  mountains  of  basalt,  appear  aston- 
ishingly duplicated  along  the  line  from  the  Negro  river  to 
the  Strait  of  Magellan,  15,000  sq.  leagues."  The  abrupt  and 
smooth  coast  line  is  destitute  of  all  vegetation,  and  its 
gloomy  appearance  can,  perhaps,  be  better  imagined  than 
described,  for  this  is  the  region  to  which  Darwin  applied 
the  term  "Accursed  Land,"  to  which  we  have  alluded  before. 
The  land  which  can  be  utilized  for  sheep-raising  purposes 
covers  an  area  of  8,000  square  leagues,  figuring  on  about 
1,500  head  to  a  square  league  or  a  total  of  12,000,000  sheep, 
which  is  a  small  figure,  for  were  the  rainfall  heavier  a  much 
larger  number  could  be  accommodated.  The  remaining  7,000 
square  leagues  of  surface  will  remain  unserviceable  for  an 
indefinitely  long  time,  due  to  the  difficulty,  and,  I  dare  say, 
impossibility  of  finding  fresh  artesian  water.  The  fertile  part 
of  the  Patagonian  region  is  that  which  penetrates  into  the 
heart  of  the  Andes  through  the  "'Valles  Gordilleranos" 
(valleys  of  the  range),  comprising  4,000  square  leagues  of 
fertile  soil  with  abundant  rains,  large  forests  and  metals 
which  can  be  easily  exploited  through  the  advantages  of  an 
abundant  supply  of  fuel  and  motive  force,  which  can  be 
obtained  from  the  numberless  streams  and  water-falls  found 
in  the  district.  This  region  can  be  properly  referred  to  as 
the  ^'Switzerland  of  Argentina,"  having  even  larger  lakes 
than  those  of  Switzerland  in  Europe,  surrounded  by  high 
mountains.  We  find  there  the  great  lakes :  Argentina,  which 
is  120  kilometers  long  by  50  kilometers  wide ;  Buenos  Aires 


108       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

Lake,  150  kilometers  long;  Nahuel  Huapi  Lake,  resem- 
bling a  gigantic  octopus,  100  kilometers  in  length,  and  many 
others.  There  are  more  than  100  lakes  of  considerable 
size.  The  lakes  of  the  Andes,  which  Frey  numbered  from  1 
to  70,  and  which  are  considered  large  bodies,  do  not  appear 
on  the  maps. 

The  Sterile  Pampa 

The  sterile  pampa  region  with  its  barren  deserts  occupies 
the  northwestern  part  of  Argentina  as  far  as  the  foot  of 
the  Andes  mountains.  It  is  sandy  in  certain  places  and 
saline  in  others ;  very  little  rainfall  with  a  tropical  African 
climate  during  the  summer  season,  and  very  cold  in  winter. 
The  only  vegetation  found  consists  of  a  species  of  feeble, 
thorny  shrubbery.  High  temperature  of  46°  centigrade  at 
Santiago  del  Estero,  and  41°  at  San  Juan,  Rioja,  have 
been  recorded,  temperature  such  as  is  recorded  in  the  Desert 
of  Sahara.  In  the  very  same  region  the  thermometer 
registers  six  and  eight  degrees  below  during  the  winter 
months,  and  has  fallen  as  low  as  twelve  and  fourteen  below, 
at  San  Luis  and  Mendoza. 

The  Mountainous  Region  of  Brazil  and  the  Plateaus  op 
THE  Brazilian  System 

The  great  system  formed  by  the  Coast  Range  and  many 
other  chains  of  mountains,  attains  its  maximum  height 
(2,944  meters)  at  Agulhas  Negras,  and  2,932  meters  at  the 
Pyrenees  in  Goyaz.  It  covers  an  area  of  4,500,000  square 
kilometers,  which  is  equal  to  almost  half  of  the  territory  of 
Europe. 

Two  million  square  kilometers  of  this  area  have  a 
healthy  and  temperate  climate.  This  comprises  the  most 
densely  populated  and  most  widely  cultivated  region  in- 
cluding the  states  of  San  Paulo,  Rio  Janeiro,  Bahia, 
Pernambuco,  Santa  Catalina,  and  Rio  Grande  del  Sur. 
Most  of  the  coffee,  tobacco,  cotton,  sugar-cane,  lumber, 
and  tinctorial  plants  produced,  come  from  the  valleys,  while 


VAST  NATURAL  REGIONS  109 

the  plateaus  are  being  utilized  for  cattle-raising,  where 
there  are  more  than  28,000,000  head  at  the  present  time. 
One  of  the  leading  regions  of  the  live-stock  industry  is  Matto 
Grosso,  situated  in  upper  Paraguay,  known  as  the  plateaus 
of  the  Parecis  Range,  and  which  is  now  accessible  by  the 
railroad  recently  built  from  Corumb^  to  San  Paulo  and 
Santos.  The  jerked  beef,  prepared  in  this  region,  is  shipped 
via  the  Parand  and  the  La  Plata,  for  consumption  in  Brazil. 
Another  very  important  live-stock  state  is  Rio  Grande  del 
Sur,  which  adjoins  the  Republica  Oriental  del  Uruguay,  and 
ships  prepared  beef  via  the  Uruguayan  Central  Railroad  to 
Montevideo,  whence  it  is  exported  to  foreign  markets.  This 
route  is  also  used  for  the  exportation  of  wool,  hides,  fats  and 
other  animal  products,  the  value  of  which  amounts  to  more 
than  40,000,000  dollars  annually.  Live  stock  is  also  an  im- 
portant industry  in  the  states  of  Goyaz  and  Minas.  Not 
so  much  beef  is  exported,  as  the  consumption  among  the 
24,000,000  inhabitants  of  Brazil  is  in  itself  an  important 
item,  figuring  that  the  proportion  is  a  little  more  than  one 
animal  for  each  inhabitant,  while  Argentina  has  30,000,000 
head  of  cattle  and  67.000,000  head  of  sheep  for  8,000,000 
inhabitants,  and  Uruguay  for  its  one  and  a  half  million 
population,  has  8,000,000  cattle  and  20,000,000  sheep. 

The  United  States  of  America  at  one  time  exported  large 
quantities  of  beef,  for  in  1890  their  65,000,000  head  of  cattle 
were  more  than  enough  for  the  population  of  60,000,000,  but 
they  are  today  importing  large  quantities  of  beef  from  the 
La  Plata  region  in  order  to  keep  pace  with  the  consumption 
of  their  110,000,000  population.  It  is  possible  that  Brazil 
will  be  able  to  increase  its  production  of  live  stock  and  has 
accordingly  taken  very  good  steps  to  effect  it. 


CHAPTER  VI 
HYDROGRAPHY 

SUMMARY 

Influence  of  the  Andean  Range  on  the  Hydrography  of  South  America— The  Line  of 
Perpetual  Snow  on  the  Andes — The  Great  Hydrographic  Slopes  of  South  America — Ist,  La 
Plata  Slope — 2d,  The  Amazonian  Slope — 3d,  The  Slope  of  the  Orinoco — 4th,  Pacific  Slope. 

Influence  op  the  Andean  Range  on  the  Hydrography 
OP  South  America 

The  Andean  Range  is  the  water-shed  between  the  two 
large  drainage  slopes,  one  over  a  long  and  narrow  tract, 
the  other  extending  over  nearly  the  whole  continent.  Due 
to  its  great  height  this  range  has  a  marked  effect  on  the 
climate  and  the  rainfall,  in  obstructing  the  moisture-laden 
clouds  carried  by  the  eastern  winds. 

The  Line  op  Perpetual  Snow  on  the  Andes 

It  is  noticeable  that  the  eastern  slope  has  a  heavier  rain- 
fall than  either  the  plateau  region  or  the  western  slope  of 
the  Pacific.  The  line  of  perpetual  snow  is  at  a  higher  alti- 
tude on  the  mountains  along  the  Pacific  Coast  than  on 
the  eastern  range  where  the  snowfall  is  heavier.  Perpetual 
snow  is  at  a  height  of  6,000  meters  on  the  western  range 
of  Bolivia,  while  at  an  elevation  of  5,200  meters  on  the 
eastern  Cordillera.  It  is  of  course  a  natural  fact  that  the 
line  of  perpetual  snow  descends  to  a  lower  elevation  the 
farther  the  distance  from  the  equator,  to  wit :  at  Mt.  Acon- 
cagua 33°  south,  4,482  meters  elevation;  at  Mt.  Sarmiento, 
55°  south,  1,072  meters.  As  the  rainfall  of  Ecuador  is 
heavier  than  in  Bolivia,  the  line  of  perpetual  snow  is  higher, 
or  4,600  meters  on  Mt.  Cotopaxi,  which  is  situated  almost  on 
the  line  of  the  equator. 

110 


HYDROGRAPHY  111 

The  Great  Hydrographic  Slopes  of  South  America 

The  eastern  or  Atlantic  slope  consists  of  three  slopes 
drained  by  the  three  large  rivers  of  South  America :  the 
Orinoco,  the  Amazon  and  the  La  Plata,  the  first  two  being 
2,200  and  5,000  kilometers  long,  respectively,  and  the  third 
is  formed  by  the  rivers  Parana  and  Uruguay,  4,500  and 
1,500  kilometers,  respectively.  In  the  chapter  devoted  to 
"Means  of  Communication"  we  show  in  detail  how  easy 
it  would  be  to  establish  communication  between  the  La 
Plata  and  the  Amazon  through  the  rivers  Parang  and  Para- 
guay and  the  Tocantins,  tributary  of  the  Amazon,  a  project 
which  should  attract  the  attention  of  enterprising  Yankee 
concerns  to  whom  nothing  seems  impossible.  This  route 
could  be  established  far  more  economically  than  the  one 
contemplated  by  the  English,  in  Africa,  from  the  Cape 
through  the  South  African  republics,  through  the  Congo 
and  the  Nile  to  Cairo,  Egypt,  a  part  of  which  is  already 
completed.  The  reader  can  easily  observe  the  conditions  of 
navigation  of  South  America,  by  consulting  the  map  on 
"Communications"  found  in  another  part  of  this  book,  with 
reference  to  river  communication  and  railroad  lines  now  in 
operation  as  well  as  those  being  planned.  The  so-called  Rio 
de  la  Plata  is  a  big  estuary  formed  by  the  Parand  and 
Uruguay,  both  of  which  have  their  origin  in  the  tropical 
region  of  Brazil.  The  La  Plata  is  180  miles  wide  at  its 
mouth,  where  it  flows  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  between  Cape 
Santa  Maria  in  Uruguay  and  Cape  San  Antonio  in  Argen- 
tina. The  distance  across  the  estuary,  between  Montevideo 
and  Buenos  Aires,  is  120  miles  and  30  miles  from  Buenos 
Aires  to  the  nearest  point  in  Uruguay.  The  part  of  the 
river  from  Montevideo,  toward  Buenos  Aires,  is  fresh 
river-water,  and  east  of  Montevideo  salt  sea-water.  Monte- 
video is  a  seaport.  The  Parand  is  a  very  large  stream 
not  unlike  the  Mississippi  of  North  America,  as  to  abun- 
dance of  water,  general  course  and  different  climatic 
belts  through  which  it  flows.    The  Paraguay,  the  principal 


112       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

tributary  of  the  Parand,  though  far  more  useful  as  a  navig- 
able stream,  compares  with  the  Missouri  River.  It  is 
navigable  by  small  steamers  almost  to  its  source.  The  great 
central  zone  of  Brazil,  with  its  immense  wealth  of  lumber 
and  live-stock,  can  have  direct  communication  with  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  through  the  Paraguay  into  the  Parana  and 
the  La  Plata,  Bolivia,  which  is  devoid  of  seacoast  though 
nearer  to  the  Pacific  than  to  the  Atlantic,  has  outlet  through 
the  Paraguay,  with  Port  Suarez  on  one  of  the  tributaries  of 
the  above  river  which  flows  through  Bolivian  territory, 
and  far  more  advantageous  for  Bolivian  commerce  than 
the  Beni,  Mamore,  Madeira  and  Amazon.  One  steamship 
line  connects  Port  Suarez  with  Buenos  Aires  and  Monte- 
video. 

The  Amazon,  which  is  5,000  kilometers  long,  is  the  largest 
river  in  the  world,  both  as  regards  volume  of  water  and  the 
number  of  its  big  tributaries.  The  combined  length  of  the 
navigable  streams,  including  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries, 
and  which  extend  to  both  hemispheres,  is  50,000  kilometers. 
The  Madeira,  which  flows  from  far  in  the  interior  of  Bolivia, 
is  3,000  kilometers  long.  The  Tapajos,  Xingu,  Purus,  Tocan- 
tins  are  each  more  than  2,000  kilometers  in  length.  The 
Negro  is  the  main  northern  tributary.  In  our  chapter 
"Means  of  Communication"  we  give  a  more  detailed  account 
as  to  the  navigation  and  the  importance  of  the  tributaries 
of  the  Amazon. 

The  rivers  of  the  Pacific  slope  are  of  very  little  importance, 
the  principal  streams  being  the  Barker,  Aysen,  Valdivia, 
Bueno,  etc.,  of  the  Chilean  republic.  It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  the  northern  littoral  of  Chile  and  Peru  is  a  dry  and 
riverless  region.  Ecuador  has  one  large  river,  on  the  side 
of  the  Pacific,  the  Guayaquil.  Colombia  has  the  rivers  Mag- 
dalena  and  Atrato,  which  are  very  important  navigable 
streams. 


CHAPTER  VII 
CLIMATOLOGY  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  REGION 

SUMMARY 

Climate  of  the  Coast  Belt — Basis  of  Temperature  of  the  Coast  Belt — Temperature  of  the 
Pampean,  the  Central  and  the  Patagonian  Regions — The  Law  of  Rains — Transparency  of 
the  Sky  in  the  Various  Zones  of  the  La  Plata  Region. 

Climate  op  the  Coast  Belt 

In  addition  to  what  has  been  said  in  describing  the 
regions  of  the  Andes  and  the  plains,  we  will  here  supplement 
that  which  relates  to  the  Climatology  of  the  La  Plata,  which 
embraces  the  best  known  regions  of  the  South  American 
Continent,  there  being  over  200  meteorological  observatories 
scattered  from  Tierra  del  Fuego  to  Paraguay  and  covering 
the  territory  of  the  republics  of  Argentina,  Uruguay  and 
Paraguay,  or  from  parallel  22°  S.  to  56°  S.  a  distance  of 
700  leagues,  or  34  degrees  of  latitude,  which  is  half  the 
length  of  the  continent  north  and  south.  The  meteorological 
department  of  Argentina  is  under  the  direction  of  North 
American  meteorologists  who  publish  a  daily  weather  re- 
port or  bulletin.  The  tract  of  land  situated  between  and 
on  the  Uruguay,  Parang  and  Paraguay  rivers  is  called 
Littoral,  supposed  to  reach  not  only  to  Buenos  Aires,  but 
includes  the  Atlantic  littoral  as  far  as  Patagonia. 

Basis  of  Temperature  op  the  Littoral  Belt 

The  Littoral,  which  is  the  most  thickly  populated  district 
of  Argentina  and  Uruguay,  has  a  temperate  climate,  which 
gradually  gets  colder  as  the  distance  from  the  equator  in- 
creases and  as  is  the  natural  result  on  all  regions  under  300 
meters  elevation.    We  give  below  the  average  temperature  of 

113 


114       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

the  last  ten  years  beginning  with  the  City  of  Asuncion  on  the 
north : 

CENTIGRADE 

ATERAQB      MAXIMUM      MINIMUM 

Asunci6n  (Capital  of  Paraguay) 22  42  0 

Corrientes  (Argentine  Republic) 20  42  0 

Sal  to  (Republic  of  Uruguay) 18 

Montevideo  (Republic  of  Uruguay) 16  38  -6 

Buenos  Aires  (Argentine  Republic) 16  40  -6 

Bahia  Blanca  (Argentine  Republic) 14  42  -8 

Montevideo  has  perceptibly  the  same  average  mean 
temperature  as  Buenos  Aires,  though  not  as  warm  in  sum- 
mer as  the  latter,  and  a  maximum  temperature  of  38°  C, 
which  is  recorded  only  about  every  eight  or  ten  years,  which 
is  not  the  case  in  Buenos  Aires,  where  this  maximum  is 
reached  almost  every  summer.  Buenos  Aires  has  also  colder 
winters,  due  to  the  cold  winds  which  sweep  over  the  city 
from  the  mountain  range,  and  which  winds  have  risen  in 
temperature  after  crossing  the  estuary  of  La  Plata,  which 
waters  have  a  minimum  temperature  of  5°  or  6°C.  above 
zero.  The  coldest  time  of  day  is  between  six, and  seven 
o'clock  in  the  morning.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
Montevideo  has  a  maritime,  and  Buenos  Aires  a  continental 
climate. 

Temperature  of  the  Central  and  Patagonian  Regions 

In  Argentina,  as  the  distance  from  the  littoral  or  coast 
increases  the  intensity  of  heat  or  cold  increases  until,  at 
the  Pampa,  there  is  a  maximum  temperature  of  44°  and  46° 
C,  in  the  provinces  of  Santiago,  Tucuman,  etc. 

The  mean  maximum  temperature  of  this  central  zone  can 
be  compared  with  that  of  the  warmest  regions  of  the  globe, 
as  is  shown  by  the  following  figures : 

CENTIGRADE 

MEAN  MAXIMUM 

Catamarca  (Recreo) 34 

Santiago  del  Estero 35 

Cruz  del  Eje  (C6rdoba) 33 

Uaadi-Half a  (Nubia) 34 

Maaaua  (Central  Africa) 34 

Kartiun  (Soudan) 33 


CLIMATOLOGY  OP  THE  LA  PLATA  REGION    115 

Patagonia  has  an  excessively  cold  winter  climate,  which 
goes  down  to  30°  C.  below  zero  at  the  Neuqueu  in  Colonia 
Sarmiento  and  other  places.  In  the  summer  the  temper- 
ature rises  to  the  other  extreme,  registering  42°  C.  on  the 
Chubut  at  port  Madrin  on  the  Atlantic.  Many  are  the 
places  where  the  temperature  rises  to  40°  C.  in  summer  and 
falls  to  25°  below  zero  during  the  winter. 

The  Law  op  Rains 

The  rainfall  gradually  decreases  towards  the  southern 
extremity,  following  the  natural  result  of  rainfall,  being 
heavier  nearer  the  tropics  and  lighter  as  it  nears  the  poles. 
In  the  northern  part  of  the  Littoral,  which  comprises  Para- 
guay, Chaco  and  the  Mission  district,  there  is  a  rainy  season 
between  April  and  September,  with  a  heavy  rainfall  the  re- 
mainder of  the  year.  Farther  south,  between  the  rivers 
Uruguay  and  Parantl  or  Argentine  Mesopotamia,  the  rain- 
fall in  the  summer  and  winter  is  equal. 

The  following  table  shows  the  decrease  in  the  annual 
rainfall  (in  millimeters)  from  north  to  south: 

Asunci6n  (Paraguay) 1320 

Concordia  (Argentina) 1070 

Montevideo 934 

Buenos  Aires 930 

Mar  del  Plata 690 

Patagones 310 

In  the  region  of  the  sterile  or  midland  Pampa,  the  decrease 
in  rainfall  is  noticed  the  farther  the  distance  from  the 
Uruguay  river  between  the  parallels  30°  S.  and  35°  S.,  which 
is  the  latitude  of  the  Republica  Oriental  del  Uruguay.  The 
diminution  is  about  at  the  rate  of  100  millimeters  for  each 
100  kilometers.  Therefore,  the  rainfall  of  900  to  1,000  milli- 
meters on  the  coast  of  Uruguay  is  only  200  millimeters  in 
San  Juan,  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  making  irrigation  indis- 
pensable for  all  agricultural  products  raised  in  this  latter 
region,  which,  nevertheless,  is  the  best  wine-producing  zone, 
its   grape   competing  with   the  best  made  in   Andalusia, 


116       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

Spain,  and  in  the  wine-producing  districts  of  Portugal.  All 
the  best  grades  of  fruits  and  vegetables,  native  to  the  region, 
are  also  raised. 

The  Patagonian  region  has  very  little  rainfall  excepting 
at  Neuquen  (1,820  mm.)  and  at  San  Martin  de  los  Andes;  in 
a  few  other  places  it  is  considerably  less.  On  the  Pata- 
gonian coast  the  rains  are  few  and  far  between,  the  maxi- 
mum corresponding  to  Trelev,  which  is  560  mm.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  rainfall  on  the  Chilean  side  is  from  2,000  to 
3,000  millimeters,  only  equaled  in  the  Amazonian  region. 
Punta  Arenas,  on  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  at  a  great  distance 
from  the  Pacific,  has  little  rainfall  (400  mm.).  Refer  to 
L.  C.  Bollo,  "Climatologia  Platense"  Barreiro  y  Ramos, 
Montevideo,  1916. 

Transparency  of  the  Sky  in  the  Various  Zones  op  the 
La  Plata  Region 

Regarding  the  condition  of  the  sky,  few  places  can  com- 
pare with  Uruguay  in  clearness  and  transparency,  prin- 
cipally because  the  atmosphere  is  free  from  haziness  and 
dust.  This  fact  alone  entitles  Uruguay  and  Argentina  to 
display  the  sun  as  their  symbol  together  with  the  white 
and  azure  hues,  which  their  flags  unfold. 

CONDITION  OP  THE  SKY.     A  Perfectly  Clear  Sky  is  marked  100 

LITTORAL  ZONE  TBN-TEAK  AVERAOE 

Montevideo 51 

Asunci6n 45 

Buenos  Aires 46 

Bahia  Blanca 44 

UIDLAND  ZONB 

Tucumdn 58 

C<3rdoba 53 

San  Luis 44 

ANDEAN  ZONB 

La  Quiaca 38 

Salta 56 

Mendoza 35 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  NATIVE  SOUTH  AMERICAN 

SUMMARY 

Is  there  One  Singular  Type  of  Native  South  American  ? — Was  South  America  First 
Settled  by  Men  from  another  Continent  ? — The  Various  South  American  Races,  Accord- 
ing to  D'Orbigny:  Andean-Peruvian,  Pampean,  Brazilian-Guaranitica — The  Races  of  South 
America  do  not  descend  from  the  Mongolians — The  Americans  were  the  first  to  use  cop- 
per, which  metal  was  unknown  to  the  Egj'ptian,  Asiatic  and  European  peoples,  and  were 
the  first  to  discover  bronze  which  the  South  American  introduced  during  the  invasions 
of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere — The  Esquimaux  of  today,  of  American  origin,  invaded  Green- 
land and  Northern  Asia. 

Is  There  One  Singular  Type  op  Native  South  American  f 

We  will  not  here  discuss  the  origin  of  the  American,  who 
was  considered,  until  just  recently,  a  modification  of  the 
Mongol  type,  which  it  resembles  slightly,  though  a  great 
many  of  the  nations  of  the  South  American  indigenes  are  as 
ditlerent  from  the  Mongols  as  they  are  from  the  Caucasians. 
The  Yuracares,  of  the  Mamor6  river  in  Bolivia,  and  of  whom 
D'Orbigny  made  a  very  close  study,  having  resided  among 
them  for  about  eight  months,  are  almost  white  in  color  and 
have  a  fine  physique.  The  Chiriguanos  of  Bolivia,  on  the 
river  Pilcomayo,  have  a  light-copper  complexion.  The  Im- 
baburenos  of  Ecuador  are  as  white  of  skin  as  the  Europeans. 
The  Cariazos,  also  of  Ecuador,  have  an  aquiline  nose  like 
the  Jivaros  of  the  Pastaza  river,  while  the  Zaparos  of  the 
Napo  resemble  the  Chinese.  According  to  tradition,  Manco 
Capac,  who  founded  the  Empire  of  the  Incas,  1,000  years 
before  the  present  era,  had  white  skin  and  golden  hair  as 
had  his  wife. 

Was  South  America  First  Settled  by  Men  from  Another 

Continent? 

Mr.  Andres  Lamas,  well-known  Uruguayan  publicist,  in 
his  introduction  to  the  work  of  Lozano,  "History  of  the 

117 


118       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

Conquest  of  Paraguay,  La  Plata  River  and  Tucum^n," 
says :  "We  do  not  know  of  any  American  myth  or  tradition 
to  which  we  can  attribute  the  supposition  that  America 
might  have  been  settled  by  emigrants  from  another 
continent." 

"We  find  traditions  of  invasions,  conquests,  colonization, 
transmigrations,  the  supplanting  of  various  tribes  whose 
origin  we  ignore  but  who  appeared  to  have  been  moving  and 
operating  within  the  same  continent  and  coming  from  the 
interior  of  the  mainland." 

"We  find  traditions  of  civilized  men  of  divers  American 
races,  traditions  of  white-skinned  golden-haired  men,  of 
barbates,  who  have  had  more  or  less  influence  in  the  do- 
minion, culture  and  destinies  of  peoples.  But  there  is  no 
tradition  to  tell  us  that  such  and  such  a  tribe  or  such  and 
such  men  were  the  settlers  of  an  uninhabited  land.  On  the 
contrary,  each  one  in  its  turn  appears,  according  to  its  re- 
spective tradition,  to  have  functioned  and  established  its 
dominion  over  people  already  occupying  the  premises,  who 
either  were  or  considered  themselves  aborigines.  Therefore, 
not  only  is  there  want  of  a  determined  fact,  myths  and 
native  traditions  that  will  permit  us  to  suppose  that 
America  was  settled  by  immigrants  from  another  continent, 
but  the  American  myths  and  traditions  existing  are  in 
opposition  to  this  supposition.  This  is  the  opinion  of  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  historians  of  the  La  Plata,  who,  with 
great  ardor  and  devotion,  made  a  thorough  study  of  these 
questions." 

The  opinion  that  became  so  general  some  time  ago  that  the 
Mongolians  had  migrated  into  and  settled  in  America,  was 
due  to  the  fact  that  many  invasions  into  North  America 
came  from  the  North,  but  in  South  America  we  find  that  the 
invasions  were  just  the  reverse.  Manco  Capac  went  to 
Cuzco,  from  the  South ;  the  civilization  which  he  founded 
and  the  palaces  constructed  in  Tiahuanaco,  all  preceded 
Manco  Capac's  time  and  emanated  from  people  that  came 
from  the  South;  the  tribes  that  destroyed  Tiahuanaco  and 


THE  NATIVE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  119 

exterminated  the  inhabitants  fifteen  centuries  ago,  also  came 
from  the  South;  the  great  invasion,  which  put  an  end  to  the 
second  dynasty  of  the  Incas  of  Cuzco,  proceeded  from  Argen- 
tina ;  the  Yncasica  civilization  started  from  the  South  travel- 
ing in  a  northerly  direction,  going  from  Cuzco  to  Quito  and 
thence  to  Ecuador;  the  Guarani  race,  which  contributed  a 
larger  number  of  inhabitants  to  South  America,  started  its 
invasion  from  Paraguay  northwardly  to  the  Amazon,  the 
Orinoco  and  the  Caribbean  or  Antilles  Isles ;  the  Caribbeans 
were  Guaranles;  the  Tupies  a  family  branch  of  the  Guar- 
anies,  moving  northwardly  drove  away  the  indigenes  from 
the  territory  where  today  stands  Rio  Janeiro.  The  Mexicans 
make  mention  of  invasions  which  have  come  into  their  terri- 
tory from  the  South. 

If  South  America  was  the  continent  where  the  ape  and  the 
biggest  ape  first  api^eared,  it  is  not  altogether  impossible 
that  it  also  had  human  inhabitants  contemporaneously  with 
the  Old  World  or  even  before.  Could  it  be  that  the  At- 
lantida  of  Platon  is  the  Arquelensis,  which  united  America 
and  Africa?  And  do  not  the  names  of  Atlantic  and  Atlas 
mountains  indicate  invasions  by  Mexicans  of  Tlascala  who 
arrived  from  Western  Lands,  according  to  tradition  of  the 
indigenes  of  Old  Berberia,  now  Marruecos  and  Tunes? 
There  is  no  other  language  that  could  have  applied  these 
names  distinctly  of  Mexican  origin. 

The  South  American  Races 

According  to  D'Orbigny 

Going  back  to  the  subject  of  the  indigenous  races  of  South 
America,  we  are  indebted  to  the  celebrated  French  natur- 
alist, D'Orbigny,  for  a  good  classification  based  on  the 
principal  anatomical  characteristics.  Although  it  may  not 
correspond  exactly  with  the  details  given  at  a  later  date 
through  anthropology,  then  an  almost  unknown  science,  he 
furnishes  by  means  of  his  exactness  in  detail  a  perfect  idea 
of  the  man  of  South  America.    The  sage  D'Orbigny  resided 


120       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

in  America  several  years  and  was  able  to  understand  those 
peoples.  The  Andean-Peruvian  race  was  of  dark  olive  com- 
plexion, small  stature,  horizontal  eyes  and  rather  high  fore- 
head. It  is  divided  into  three  branches :  Peruana,  Aniiciana, 
and  Araucana.  Average  height  of  the  Peruano,  1.59  meters; 
large,  aquiline  nose ;  lips,  medium ;  cheekbones  not  high ; 
long,  oval  face,  in  fact,  characteristics  which  the  Mongolian 
does  not  possess.  To  this  branch  belong  the  Quichuas  and 
Aimaras  of  the  Peru-Bolivian  Plateau,  the  founders  of  the 
Empire  of  the  Incas,  which,  as  we  have  said,  attained 
civilization  comparable  to  that  of  Ancient  Egypt. 

The  Anticiana:  average  height,  1.64  meters;  nose  not  uni- 
form in  shape;  dark-olive  complexion,  more  or  less  fair; 
forehead,  not  low;  horizontal  eyes;  face,  oval.  To  this 
branch  belong  the  Yuracares,  almost  white  in  complexion, 
who  live  in  the  forests  of  Bolivia,  and  the  Mocetones,  etc. 

The  Araucama:  Average  height,  1.64  meters;  complexion, 
veiy  dark  brown ;  face,  almost  circular ;  nose,  short  and  flat ; 
high  cheek-bones;  forehead,  rather  high.  Araiwanos  Ran- 
queles  and  Fueguinos  of  Patagonia  are  descendants  of  the 
Araucanos  of  Chile,  the  PeJiuenches  of  Patagonia  and  the 
Aucas. 

The  Pampean  Race:  Very  tall;  arched  forehead,  not  low; 
horizontal  eyes;  dark-olive  skin.  This  race  inhabited  the 
Pampa  Argentina  and  the  territoiy  of  Uruguay.  It  is  di- 
vided into  three  branches:  Pampeana,  CJiiquitana  and 
Moxcana.  The  Pampean  is  tall  of  stature,  averaging  1.68 
meters  in  height;  complexion,  brown,  dark-olive  or  reddish 
brown;  long  face;  flat  nose;  very  large  mouth;  high  cheek- 
bones; many  are  ferocious  in  appearance. 

The  Patagones  and  Tehuelches,  of  Patagonia,  the  extinct 
Charrnas,  of  Uruguay,  and  the  Tohas,  and  others  of  the 
Chaco. 

The  Chiquitana  and  Moxana  branches  are  scattered 
throughout  the  Bolivian  plains  of  Moxos  and  Chiquitos. 

The  Brasilo-Ouaranitica  Race:  Yellowish  with  a  pale 
reddish    tinge;    moderate    stature,    average    1.62    meters; 


THE  NATIVE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  121 

rounded  forehead;  circular  face;  small  protruding  mouth, 
thin  lips,  cheek-bones  somewhat  regular ;  stockily  built.  The 
larger  part  of  tlie  indigenous  ])opnlation  of  Brazil,  Paraguaj' 
and  the  regions  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Amazon  belong  to 
this  race. 

The  Querandies,  who  settled  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the 
La  Plata  when  Buenos  Aires  was  founded,  belong  to  the 
Guaranies  branch. 

The  Races  of  South  America  Are  Not  Descendants  of 
THE  Mongolians 

We  believe  that  upon  inspection  of  the  descriptive  char- 
acteristics as  given  by  D'Orbigny,  regarding  the  principal 
American  peoples,  they  will  be  found  convincing  enough  to 
cause  us  to  abandon  the  Mongolomanian  idea  of  the  sages 
who  make  of  the  Mongolian  race  an  enormous  bag  wherein 
they  cram  all  things  about  which  they  are  unable  to  give  a 
satisfactory  explanation.  The  I'eruvian  race,  which 
founded  one  of  the  greatest  empires  that  have  ever  existed, 
is  distinguished  mainly  by  the  fact  that  their  cheek-bones 
are  not  high,  contrary  to  the  most  noticeable  characteristic 
of  the  Mongolians,  which  is  predominant  even  among  the 
races  to  which  the  Mongolians  are  related,  as  for  instance 
the  Magiares,  and  all  the  descendants  of  Mongolians  found 
in  Russia  today.  The  Guaranies  and  Peruanos,  who  repre- 
sent, perhaps,  the  largest  of  the  South  American  races,  are 
also  noted  for  their  high  cheek-bones. 

The  region  of  Pamir,  which  the  believers  of  the  Mongolian 
immigration  idea  have  selected  as  the  original  home  of  man- 
kind, and  which  place  they  claim  was  the  starting  point  of 
the  great  invasions  that  went  into  Europe  from  Asia,  is  on 
account  of  its  climatic  conditions  of  excessive  heat  and  cold 
during  the  opposing  seasons,  the  contrasting  changes  be- 
tween the  places  which  are  bathed  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  and 
those  in  shade,  as  well  as  by  its  barrenness,  lack  of  water 
and  fuel,  the  least  desirable  location  for  human  life  to  have 
grown  and  developed.     Its  present  inhabitants  are  among 


122       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

the  most  inferior  of  the  Asiatic  races  of  today.  It  can  not 
be  aflSrmed  that  the  conditions  of  life  may  have  been  better, 
as  was  the  case  in  Patagonia  and  even  in  the  Desert  of 
Sahara,  for  notwithstanding  the  nntiring  study  of  that 
region,  by  famous  explorers,  particularly  the  English,  not 
even  a  vestige  has  been  found  which  might  establish  the  fact 
that  there  was  at  one  time  a  more  profuse  vegetation  or  a 
partially  advanced  civilization,  and  not  a  trace  that  there 
might  have  been,  in  that  particular  region,  a  higher  order  of 
animal  or  vegetable  life  nor  of  a  more  civilized  man.  It  is 
like  the  other  legends,  which  treat  about  the  antiquity  of  the 
white  races  of  India,  as  the  Dravidians,  and  that  attributed 
to  the  Aryans,  this  latter  legend  having  been  completely 
disproved  by  the  conscientious  study  of  the  most  renowned 
investigators  of  a  later  period.  The  celebrated  structures  of 
India  and  everything  that  was  considered  remotely  ancient, 
are  found  to  date  back  only  a  few  centuries  prior  to  the  con- 
quest by  Alexander  the  Great.  Yet  some  of  these  novels  are 
being  used  as  a  historical  text  today  in  certain  universities. 
Like  the  oldest  civilized  regions  of  Egypt  and  Chaldea, 
though  their  history  only  goes  back  7,000  years,  these 
regions,  due  to  their  fertility  of  soil,  were  the  centers  of 
numerous  organized  nations,  which  found  means  of  subsist- 
ence and  proper  living  conditions  for  the  successful  develop- 
ment of  the  species.  But  what  are  7,000  years  against 
18,000,  which  the  Mexican  traditions  claim  for  their  civiliza- 
tion, the  antiquity  of  the  Empire  of  the  Incas  and  still  the 
older  civilization  j)recediug  that  of  the  Incas,  and  which  is 
attested  by  the  ruins  of  Tiahuanaco? 

There  exists  one  fact  which  proves  that  the  people  of 
America  exerted  some  influence  in  European  civilization, 
they  being  the  first  to  use  copper,  as  in  no  part  of  the  Old 
World  was  copper  known,  neither  among  the  Egyptians 
who  made  use  of  brass  many  thousands  of  years  before 
the  Europeans  did.  As  bronze  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and 
tin,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  if  copper  was  unknown 
to  both  the  Europeans  and  the  Egyptians,  and  known  to 


THE  NATIVE  SOUTH  AMEKICAN  123 

the  native  Americaus,  who  used  it  as  arrow  points,  the 
latter  were  the  inventors  of  bronze,  which  product  has 
played  such  an  important  part  in  the  civilization  of  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere.  It  has  also  been  demonstrated  that 
the  Eskimo  are  natives  of  America  and  differ  from  the 
Mongolians,  who  are  brachicephalus,  in  that  the  Eskimo  are 
unquestionabl}^  the  most  dolichocephalic  of  all  the  peoples 
of  the  world.  The  Eskimo,  on  being  pushed  away  by  other 
people,  spread  to  the  Arctic  regions  and  crossed  to 
Greenland  and  Northern  Asia.  This  invasion  differed  en- 
tirely from  tliose  which  might  have  taken  place  from  Asia 
to  America,  and  of  which  there  may  have  been  several  in  the 
course  of  all  the  past  ages. 

The  primitive  races  of  America  are  represented  by  the 
Eskimo  in  the  North,  the  Botocudos  of  Brazil,  and  the 
Tekiuicos  and  Pecherais  of  Tierra  del  Fuego;  their  respec- 
tive languages  are  unlike  those  of  their  immediate  neighbors ; 
they  have  a  dolicocephalus  cranium.  In  Europe,  the  Bas- 
cos  and  the  Bereberes  are  considered  the  primitive  races; 
the  former  believe  that  they  are  the  descendants  of  the 
Iberians,  who  inhabited  a  large  part  of  western  France  and 
part  of  Italy.  The  Bereberes  of  Marruecos  and  Tunis, 
formerly  Berbery,  have  many  things  in  common  with  the 
inhabitants  of  Livia,  who  in  many  ways  resembled  the 
Iberians.  All  these  peoples  have  suffered  many  changes,  due 
to  the  intermingling  with  the  peoples  of  contiguous  terri- 
tory, though  they  yet  retain  a  certain  degree  of  similarity 
to  the  native  American.  The  Bereber,  like  the  native  Ameri- 
can Indian,  has  scanty  beard;  red  skin;  black  and  straight 
hair;  dqlicocephalus  cranium.  The  Berberes  (Guanches) 
also  inhabited  the  Canaries,  and  spoke  a  language  similar 
lo  the  Basco.  The  Bascos  resemble  the  Indian  of  America 
in  that  they  both  have  black,  straight  hair  and  a  dolico- 
cephalus cranium.  The  Fulos  or  Fullahs  of  the  Soudan  in 
Africa  have  also  the  same  complexion  and  hair  of  the 
American  Indian. 

Columbus  claimed  that  the  inhabitants  whom  he  found  at 


124       SOUTH  AMERICA  TAST  AND  PRESENT 

Hispaniola  and  on  the  i.sland  of  Guahamani  resembled  the 
Canarios.  Casteluau,  noted  explorer,  says  in  his  book 
"Voyage  dans  I'Ameriqne  du  Sud :"  "I  have  found  it  an  im- 
possibility to  examine  the  beautiful  Egyptian  paintings  in 
the  British  Museum,  without  registering  surprise  on  notic- 
ing the  striking  resemblance  of  many  of  the  subjects  to  the 
Indians  of  the  New  World,  among  whom  I  have  lived  for 
many  years.  The  best  artist  could  not  paint  a  better  repro- 
duction of  the  savages  of  South  America  than  has  been  made 
by  these  very  able  masters." 

The  reputed  French  geographer,  E.  Reclus,  declares  that 
the  Mutugorri,  Iberian  people  or  ancestors  of  the  Bascos, 
were  of  a  reddish  complexion.  Michelet,  celebrated  French 
historian,  says  that  on  beholding  the  Etruscan  vases,  they 
reminded  him  of  the  Mexican  statues  of  Palenque.  The 
reader  will  no  doubt  have  noticed  that  the  resemblances 
described  by  these  eminent  men  are  not  a  mere  accident,  but 
they  cause  one  to  ponder  and  realize  that  there  was  a  re- 
semblance between  the  oldest  races  of  the  two  hemispheres — 
Oriental  and  Occidental — and  there  is  one  additional  proof 
in  the  fact  that  there  existed  another  continent  which 
joined  these  two — the  Arquelensis,  which  joined  Brazil  and 
Africa,  or  the  Atlantida  of  Platou,  which  joined  Mexico  to 
Berberia  and  Spain  and  which  was  the  road  used  by  the 
Mexicans,  who  were  probably  the  ancestors  of  the  Bascos, 
Bereberes,  Fulahs  and  Egyptians. 

Platon  says  in  his  Timeus,  that  Solon  on  his  trip  to  Egypt 
beard  one  of  the  priests  exclaim :  "Oh  Solon !  Oh  Solon ! 
You  Greeks  are  young  still.  There  is  not  one  single  old 
man  among  you.  You  accept  as  facts  what  are  emblematic 
fables.  Y'ou  only  have  information  as  to  one  Deluge  which 
has  been  preceded  by  many.  Athens  has  existed  as  a  civil- 
ized community  for  ages,  and  has  for  a  very  long  time  been 
famous  in  Egypt,  for  feats  which  you  ignore  and  the  history 
of  which  is  on  record  in  our  archives.  There  you  may 
secure  information  as  to  the  antiquity  of  our  nation.  There 
you   will   learn   about   the   heroic   manner   in    which   the 


THE  NATIVE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  125 

Atheniaus  of  old  times  checked  a  formidable  nation  which 
had  established  itself  over  Europe  and  Asia  through  an  in- 
vasion by  warriors  coming  from  the  Atlantic  Sea.  This 
body  of  water  partially  surrounded  a  large  tract  of  land 
situated  opposite  the  entrance  to  the  Strait  called  'Columns 
of  Hercules.'  This  region  was  larger  than  Asia  and  Libia 
combined.  There  was  a  large  number  of  islands  between 
this  land  and  the  Strait.  The  country,  about  which  I  have 
just  spoken,  or  Atlantida  island,  was  governed  by  united 
sovereigns.  In  one  of  their  expeditions  they  took  posses- 
sion of  Libia  as  far  as  Egypt  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other 
they  traversed  the  whole  region  as  far  as  Tirreni.  All  our 
people  were  at  one  time  slaves,  our  grandfathers  becoming 
our  liberators  when  their  fleet  defeated  that  of  the  Atlan- 
tidos.  A  short  time  afterwards  their  island  became  sub- 
merged, and  the  region  which  was  larger  than  Europe  and 
Asia  combined  disappeared  instantaneously."  There  is  a 
similar  tradition  in  America.  "At  one  time  there  was  in 
Central  America  the  Empire  of  Xibalba,  governed  by  two 
kings,  who  were  Supreme  Chiefs  of  the  empire  and  who  had 
ten  other  kings  under  them,  each  one  the  ruler  of  a  large 
kingdom,  establishing  among  themselves  a  sort  of  council, 
which  decided  matters  of  common  interest.  Gradually  they 
extended  their  dominion  over  the  whole  world,  but  a  sudden 
deluge  came  and  they  all  disappeared."  (Brasseur  de 
Bourbourg,  Histoires  de  nations  civilisees  du  Mexique  et  de 
I'Am^rique  Centrale.) 

Be  this  the  trutli  or  a  mere  myth,  science  considers 
possible  the  existence  of  the  Atlantida  island,  and  Pale- 
ontology considers  it  even  more  necessary  in  order  to 
explain  the  emigration  of  the  big  mammals  from  Europe  to 
North  America  and  from  South  America  to  Africa. 


CHAPTER  IX 

PRESENT  AND  FOSSIL  FAUNA  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 

The  present  fauna  of  South  America  is  cliaracterized  by 
the  absence  of  Proboscides  and  Hypoides,  but  such  was  not 
the  case  in  ages  past,  this  continent  having  furnished  more 
ungulates  or  hoofed-animals  with  hoof  and  skull,  and  also 
had  a  large  number  of  Proboscides  (animals  with  prehensile 
extension  of  the  nose  like  the  elephant)  and  Hypoides  or 
primitive  horse.  Eight  speces  of  ungulates  are  known,  all 
of  which  have  disappeared ;  four  of  these  — the  Tillodont,  An- 
cylopoda,  Amblypoda,  and  Condylartha — are  found  among 
fossil  remains  in  Europe  and  North  America.  A  larger 
variety  was  found  in  South  America.  The  sub-orders  now 
extinct,  Protougulata,  Litopternos,  Toxodontia  and  Typo- 
theria,  were  exclusively  South  American.  In  brief — 
This  continent  had  all  the  ungulates  that  ever  lived  and  are 
yet  living  in  the  other  continents,  thereby  proving  that 
Bouth  America  was  the  primitive  home  of  all  ungulates, 
and  the  center  of  irradiation  which  reached  across  the 
Arquelensis,  uniting  Brazil  and  Africa,  and  across  the  land 
joining  Patagonia  and  Australia — the  Austral  Continent, 
the  route  taken  by  the  Marsupials,  from  which  the  Kangaroo 
of  Australia  descends.  The  Comadreja  (Opossum)  of  the 
Pamj^a  is  the  predecessor  of  the  Kangaroo  and  the  oldest 
of  the  mammals  living  today.  The  gigantic  ungulate  Am- 
blipodes,  primitive  South  American  species,  had  a  bulk  and 
heavy  frame  like  the  elephant's,  though  having  much  heavier 
and  stronger  legs  and  five  toes  on  each  foot.  The  family  of 
the  Astratoperiums  developed  into  a  larger  species  than 
the  elephant,  of  which  we  have  as  an  example  the  I'arastra- 
l)otherium.  Several  species  of  the  family  of  the  Protohippus 
are  known  to  be  the  predecessors  of  the  horse  today.    The 

126 


PRESENT  AND  FOSSIL  FAUNA  127 

primitive  horse  had  five  toes  ou  each  foot,  the  toes  gradually 
disappearing  until  finally  only  one  remained,  that  of  the 
present  horse.  An  exhibit  in  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History  of  New  York  shows  this  and  other  phases 
in  the  evolution  of  the  horse.  It  is  known  in  this  museum 
as  Eohippus  (Aurora  horse),  and  it  is  stated  that  it  lived 
3,000,000  years  ago.  In  North  America  it  inhabited  the 
regions  of  New  Mexico  and  Wyoming.  The  Pyrotherium 
compared  in  size  with  the  elephant  of  today.  It  is  repre- 
sented in  Africa  by  the  Moeritherium,  Paheomosdon,  etc., 
and  in  Europe  and  Asia  by  the  Mastodon  and  Dinotherium. 
The  Pyrotherium  of  the  Pampa,  the  ancestor  of  these  species, 
crossed  the  Arquelensis,  which  united  both  continents,  just 
as  the  Mastodon  and  the  Dinotherium  passed  from  Europe 
to  North  America,  over  the  now  submerged  continent,  which 
may  have  been  Atlantida.  Ou  crossing  Panama,  these  two 
gigantic  mammals  returned  to  their  mother  land,  the  home 
of  their  ancestor,  the  pampean  Pyrotherium  of  the  cretace- 
ous era. 

In  cases  where  the  intermediate  evolutionary  order  of 
animal  life  is  not  to  be  found  in  a  continent,  but  its  primi- 
tive and  ulterior  forms  are  discovered,  it  conclusively  proves 
that  the  evolution  of  the  preceding  species  took  form  in 
another  continent,  and  also  proves  that  the  missing  species 
passed  from  one  to  the  other  continent  where  its  transforma- 
tion took  place,  as  is  the  case  with  the  horse,  which  was  not 
in  existence  in  America  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  explora- 
tion ;  yet,  its  fossil  remains  are  found  in  both  Americas,  but 
in  larger  number  in  South  America.  There  are  fifty  species  of 
the  primitive  horse  found  in  America,  showing  its  evolution 
up  to  the  species  of  the  present  day,  meaning  that  the  horse 
originated  in  America,  which  fact  is  attested  by  the  various 
fossil  remains  found  throughout  the  vast  territory  lying  be- 
tween the  Argentine  Pampa  and  the  State  of  Nebraska  in 
the  United  States  of  America,  where  all  the  evolutionary 
species  up  to  the  horse  of  today  are  found. 

The  North  American  reader,  in  studying  the  evolution  of 


128       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

the  borse  at  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  in  New  York, 
will  notice  the  following  five  principal  characteristics: 

First — Eohippus,  having  five  toes;  second — Protorohip- 
pus,  with  four  toes;  third — Mesohippus,  with  three  toes; 
fourth — Protohippus,  with  three  toes  (the  two  lateral  toes 
which  formerly  touched  the  ground,  having  become  shorter, 
no  longer  touched  the  ground)  ;  fifth — Equus,  with  onlj'^  one 
toe  like  that  of  the  horse  of  today.  This  evolution  took  place 
during  the  tertiary  epoch. 

The  ancestors  of  the  camel  are  not  fouud  in  Africa,  the 
home  of  the  present  species,  but  existed  in  South  and  North 
America  in  form  as  follows,  which  are  camel  fossil  remains : 
Palaucheuia  magna,  Palacoloma  Wedelli,  Palacoloma  Oweni, 
Palacoloma  Mayor,  etc. 

The  ancestors  of  the  anthropoid  apes  (Gorilla,  Orang- 
outang and  Chimpanzee)  of  Asia  and  Africa,  originated  in 
the  I'ampa  and  not  in  Asia  and  Africa.  (Consult  Ameg- 
hiuo's  "Doctriiia  y  Descubrimientos"  Buenos  Aires,  1915, 
and  I'aleontologia  Argentina,  1904. — The  New  York  Public 
Library.) 

The  Trigodon  was  a  species  of  Toxodou  much  larger  than 
the  rhinoceros  of  today,  having  an  enormous  triangular 
head,  a  very  large  horn  which  protruded  from  the  middle 
of  the  forehead,  and  an  exceedingly  small  brain,  making  this 
l)robably  the  most  stupid  of  animals. 

The  Edentates  include  many  fossil  species  of  pampean 
formation,  among  them  the  Megatherium,  which  in  some 
cases  attained  a  growth  of  eight  meters  in  length.  The 
Mylodon  had  its  whole  body  covered  with  exuding  bony 
l>ores  arranged  in  the  shape  of  paviug-stoues.  One  of  these 
animals,  the  Neonn/Iodon,  appears  to  have  lived  recently,  for 
there  have  been  found  in  the  caves  of  Patagonia  fresh  bones 
incased  in  dried  meat  and  hide,  with  hair  intact  and  in  its 
natural  color,  which  can  be  seen  at  the  Museum  of  Buenos 
Aires  and  American  Museum  of  Natural  Historj'^,  New  York. 

The  Maorauchcnia  was  a  species  much  larger  than  the 
horse,  neck  longer  than  that  of  the  giraffe,  very  long  legs. 


PRESENT  AND  FOSSIL  FAUNA  120 

three  toes  ou  each  foot  like  the  tapir's,  with  a  trunk  like 
that  of  the  elephaut. 

Certain  animals  appeared  during  the  Pliocene  epoch, 
which  are  not  of  South  American  origin.  There  are  several 
strange  forms,  like  the  Felinos,  and  among  them  the  Smilo- 
don,  a  tiger  much  more  formidable  than  the  African  lion,  and 
with  unusually  large  saw-like  canine-teeth;  gigantic  bears 
as  large  as  oxen;  mastodons,  some  of  African  origin  and 
some  American.  These  migrations  have  taken  place  alter- 
nately and  reciprocally  between  South  America  and  the  other 
continents,  as  may  have  happened  in  the  case  of  primitive 
man.  At  the  same  time  these  migrations  explain  the  changes 
of  fauna  of  the  various  continents.  Thus,  the  Toxodon  of 
the  Pampa  reached  Nicaragua ;  the  Gliptodon  reached  Ana- 
huac  in  Mexico,  near  the  site  of  the  Mexican  capital,  and  as 
far  as  the  States  of  Texas  and  New  Mexico  in  the  United 
States;  the  Carpincho  of  Uruguay  and  Paranii  traveled  as 
far  as  Florida ;  the  Megatherium  and  Milodonns,  which  had 
become  extinct  in  the  Pampa,  are  found  in  the  States  of 
California  and  Carolina  and  in  places  along  the  Mississippi 
valley. 

No  fossil  apes  are  found  on  tertiary  soil  of  North  America, 
and  the  present  species  in  Mexico  and  Central  America  are 
South  American  types;  in  Europe  and  Asia,  fossil  apes  of 
the  Miocene  epoch  have  recently  appeared,  but  they  had 
already  been  discovered  on  Patagouian  tertiary  soil  (Ho- 
munculus  of  Santa  Cruz)  the  skull  of  which  very  closely  re- 
sembles that  of  man.  Of  all  species  of  apes  inhabiting  the 
Old  World,  none  has  its  predecessors  in  the  same  continent, 
which  leads  scientists  to  believe  that  they  are  descendants 
of  the  fossil  species  found  in  South  America,  which  conti- 
nent they  inhabited  in  the  very  remote  past.  The  Homiin- 
cuius  of  Santa  Cruz  combines  a  larger  number  of  character- 
istics common  to  man  than  any  other  of  the  apes,  and  it 
appears  to  be  the  primitive  trunk  from  which  the  American 
species  became  separated  from  the  anthropomorphus  of 
Asia  and  Africa,  and  the  homiuideos.    The  belief  that  the 


130       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

Pampa  was  the  primitive  home  of  man  is  further  coufii'med 
by  the  fact  that  among  the  fossil  remains  found,  there  are 
two  toxodons  of  the  tertiary  epoch — one  with  a  spear  point 
imbedded  in  the  trunk,  between  the  ribs,  and  another  with 
an  arrowhead  through  the  bones  of  the  leg.  These  indica- 
tions of  the  existence  of  the  man  of  the  tertiary  age,  which 
came  to  light  during  the  years  1917  and  1918,  confirm  the 
opinion  of  the  late  (died  in  1911)  naturalist,  Ameghino,  who 
found  traces  of  the  tertiary  man  of  the  Pampa. 

According  to  this  Argentine  naturalist,  the  honumculus 
types,  natives  of  South  America,  crossed  to  the  Old  AVorld 
towards  the  end  of  the  Eocene  or  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Oligocene  epoch,  over  the  remaining  part  of  the  Arquelensis, 
which,  as  we  have  stated,  united  South  America  and  Africa. 
This  is  proven  by  the  discovery  of  small  fossil  anthropoids 
at  the  oligocene  period  of  Northern  Africa,  as  was  foretold 
by  Ameghino.  There  the  species  retrograded  instead  of  ad- 
vancing, giving  place  to  the  fossil  and  present  anthropoids 
of  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa. 

The  man  of  South  America  (homo  pampaeus)  invaded 
North  America  during  the  same  period  as  the  mammoths 
— Megatherium,  Milodon,  Toxodon  and  Gliptodon — of  the 
Argentine  pampas.  These  perished,  but  man  separated  into 
two  branches,  one  invading  the  Northwest  and  the  Asiatic 
continent,  and  the  other  going  in  a  northeasterly  direction, 
crossed  the  continental  bridge,  which  at  the  beginning  of  the 
quaternary  epoch  connected  Canada  and  Europe,  penetrated 
the  latter  continent  through  the  west  and  gave  origin  to 
the  man  of  Neanderthal,  of  Spy,  and  la  Chapelle  aux  Saintes, 
now  extinct  species.  Other  groups  gradually  occupied 
Europe,  and  through  evolution  came  the  transformation  into 
the  Caucasian.  Amegliiuo  in  his  book,  "Doctrina  y  Des- 
cubrimientos,"  says:  "I  consider  it  an  impossibility  for  any 
of  the  species  of  the  apes  of  today  to  evolve  into  man,  inas- 
much as  their  evolutionary  i)roeess  has  taken  a  divergent 
course  which  at  each  step  separates  them  farther  from 
man.    All  the  fossil  apes  so  far  discovered  in  the  Old  World 


PRESENT  AND  FOSSIL  FAUNA  IJil 

belong  to  these  diverging  and  retrograding  branches.  The 
same  applies  not  onlj-  to  the  renowned  Pitecantropo  of 
Java,  but  also  to  the  man  of  Neanderthal,  both  of  which 
would  represent  extinct  divergent  lines  which  have  become 
separated  from  the  central  trunk,  during  a  comparatively 
recent  period.  The  anthropomorphic  apes  are,  in  the  opinion 
of  Ameghino,  our  degenerated  or  retrograded  brothers  and 
not  our  first  cousins,  as  Darwin  believed. 

Such  is  Ameghino's  opinion  regarding  the  races  of  man- 
kind, and  which  opinion  more  closely  coincides  with  the 
information  that  is  being  gathered  through  the  natural 
sciences.  We  mentioned  in  chapter  II  the  principal  fossil 
remains  of  the  Panipa. 

The  Man  of  Chapalmalal — Full  Sanction 

"The  Congress  of  Natural  Sciences  which  met  recently  in 
Tucum^n,  and  in  which  all  the  eminent  scientists  in  our 
country,  both  national  and  foreign,  took  part,  has  just  given 
recognition  by  unanimous  vote  to  the  authenticity  of  the 
weapons,  instruments  and  fossil  remains  found  by  Dr. 
Carlos  Ameghino  at  Chapalmalal,  and  which  were  presented 
by  him  as  an  attestation  of  the  existence  of  man  during  the 
remote  prehistoric  ages." 

The  Congress  which  has  recognized  this  authenticity  as 
well  as  that  the  objects  were  found  in  their  proper  place,  and 
that  they  were  made  and  in  use  during  that  geological  era 
to  which  belong  the  animal  fossil  remains  that  have  also 
been  found — backbone  and  femur  of  the  Toxotlon,  both  with 
incrusted  quartz  points  of  arrow  and  spear — thus  gives  the 
fullest  sanction  that  may  be  desired  by  our  country  (with 
representation  of  the  foreign  scientific  element)  to  the  fruit- 
ful labor  and  self-evident  scientific  knowledge  of  Dr.  Carlos 
Ameghino,  Director  of  the  Paleontological  and  Anthropolog- 
ical departments  of  our  museum, 

"The  matters  herein  referred  to,  received  the  special  atten- 
tion of  the  Congress,  which  on  terminating  its  labors  at  one 
of  the  sessions,  gave  a  vote  of  thanks  to  the  erudite  Paleon- 


182       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

tologist.  Therefore^  the  last  investigations  made  at  Mira- 
mar  and  Chapalmalal,  together  with  the  proof  of  the  ex- 
istence of  man  during  that  geological  epoch,  have  been 
recognized." 

"These  facts  had  been  formerly  recognized  by  the  commis- 
sion appointed  by  Dr.  Angel  Gallardo  as  Director  of  the  Na- 
tional Museum  of  Natural  History,  and  by  Dr.  Joaquin  V. 
Gonzalez,  Rector  of  the  La  Plata  University.  The  members 
of  this  commission  were:  Dr.  Santiago  Roth,  Director  of 
Mines  and  Geolog}'  of  the  Province  of  Buenos  Aires  and  In- 
structor of  Paleontology;  Dr.  Walter  Schiller,  Instructor  of 
Mineralogy  and  collaborator  in  the  management  of  Mines 
and  Geology  of  the  country ;  Moises  Kantor,  Instructor  En- 
gineer; Dr.  Lutz  Witte,  Geologist  of  the  mines  within  the 
province;  Dr.  Luis  Maria  Torres;  Dr.  Carlos  Ameghino." 

"This  commission  after  a  careful  study,  drew  up  an  affi- 
davit which  has  been  published  in  Spanish  and  in  French, 
enumerating  the  articles  found  and  asserting  that  'The 
ocular  inspection  of  the  site  where  the  above  liandiwork  is 
found  does  not  show  any  indication  which  would  lead  any 
one  to  suppose  that  the  articles  described  were  buried  at  a 
period  subsequent  to  the  formation  of  the  covering  layer; 
that  they  were  in  proper  position  and  were  therefore  con- 
sidered objects  of  human  handicraft,  contemporary  to  the 
geological  stratum  where  they  were  deposited.' " 

"Taking  in  consideration,"  adds  the  affidavit,  "all  the  cir- 
cumstances surrounding  these  discoveries,  as  well  as  the  con- 
dition of  the  objects  and  the  relative  stratification  of  the 
layers,  the  commission  oi)ines  that  the  objects  in  question 
show  traces  of  the  hand  of  man  who  lived  during  the  geo- 
logical epoch  corresponding  to  the  Chapalmalense  stratum." 

"This  closing  declaration  of  the  said  scientific  authorities 
was  afterwards  adopted  by  another  commission  later  ap- 
pointed, and  is  now  corroborated  by  the  significative  sanc- 
tion of  the  Congress  of  Natural  Sciences." 

"Thus,  scientific  evidence  asserts  itself  and  leaves  those 
who  would  fain  deny  it  in  a  lamentable  state." 


PRESENT  AND  FOSSIL  FAUNA  133 

Published  in  "La  Nacion"  (principal  Argentine  daily)  of 
Buenos  Aires,  issue  of  Dec.  15,  1916,  regarding  the  de- 
liberations of  the  Tuiornun  Scientific  Congress,  which  met  a 
few  days  before. 

Extraordinary  Fish  Wealth  op  La  Plata 

Montevideo  has,  since  the  colonial  epoch,  been  famous 
lliroughout  the  civilized  world  for  its  extraordinary  wealth 
and  variety  of  fishes,  such  as  will  satisfy  the  most  exacting 
taste.  Its  supply  by  far  exceeds  that  of  most  of  the  seaport 
town.*;  of  Europe,  not  excluding  England,  Holland  and  other 
countries  of  northern  Europe. 

It  is  difficult  to  find  better  edible  fish  than  the  pescodilla 
dc  red,  hrotula,  pejerrcy,  ancliou,  corhina,  sargo,  etc.,  and 
other  varieties  which  abound  in  Montevideo,  Maldonado,  and 
all  along  the  coast  of  tlie  Atlantic.  Several  of  these  species 
come  from  South  Atlantic  waters  as  they  migrate  north, 
seeking  a  warmer  climate  during  the  winter  season,  hatching 
their  eggs  in  the  estuary  of  La  Plata,  where  they  find  in  the 
sediment  brought  down  by  the  waters  of  the  Parancl  and 
Paraguay,  an  abundant  supply  of  vegetable  food  or  phyto- 
plankton  in  the  form  of  microscopic  seaweed,  which  makes 
an  excellent  fi.sh  food.  In  Canada  it  is  the  sea-coralline 
wrack  that  attracts  the  codfish  of  Terranova.  The  zoo- 
plankton  must  necessarily  be  very  abundant,  inasmuch  as  it 
is  formed  by  microscopic  animals  like  the  foraminiferes, 
nocticules,  radiolares,  etc.,  which  abound  in  temperate 
waters.  Our  book  in  Zoology,  published  in  1894,  states  that 
certain  species  migrated,  among  them,  the  anchovy,  which 
is  found  near  Montevideo  only  during  the  Autumn  and 
Winter.  The  immigrating  species  are  still  unknown,  as  the 
Institute  on  Fishes,  founded  a  few  years  ago,  has  not  made 
a  complete  study  of  them  as  yet.  The  French  naturalist, 
A.  Bouyat,  has  included  in  his  book,  "Les  Pecheries  de  la 
Cote  d'Afrique"  (Challamel  editeur,  Paris,  1908),  the  life 
of  the  fishes  of  the  Atlantic.  The  said  author,  who  is  in- 
structor of  Zoology  in  the  Institute  of  Agriculture  in  Monte- 


134       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

video,  says  in  his  book,  "Contribution  al  etude  de  la  pec-he 
maritime  en  Uruguay,"  that  the  abundance  of  sardines  dur- 
ing certain  epochs  seems  to  indicate  that  the  coast  is 
frequently  visited  by  shoals  of  sardines,  and  that  a  complete 
study  as  to  their  migrating  habits  should  be  made.  The 
author  of  this  book  lives  near  the  seashore  of  Montevideo, 
and  it  has  been  his  observation  as  well  as  that  of  the  fisher- 
men of  that  region,  that  there  are  certain  periods  of  the  year 
when  large  schools  of  fish  come  from  the  South  Pole  as  far 
as  the  estuary  of  La  Plata.  Many  species,  such  as  the 
pejerrey  and  the  boga,  find  their  way  during  the  winter 
months  into  the  Paraml  and  Uruguay  and  their  tributaries. 
The  supply  of  fish  in  Montevideo  is  sufficiently  large  for 
home  consumption  and  for  exportation  to  the  Buenos  Aires 
markets,  large  quantities  being  carried  by  all  the  night 
steamers  that  leave  Montevideo  for  the  Argentine  capital. 
The  fish  bureau,  under  the  direction  of  Don  Juan  Nelson 
Wismer,  a  North  American  expert,  sells  the  highest  grade 
fish  on  the  street  markets  at  six  cents  per  kilo  (less  than 
three  cents  per  pound) .  During  certain  days  of  the  summer 
season,  the  fish  caught  in  nets  reach  such  vast  proportions 
that  it  sells  at  the  rate  of  twenty  liters  for  one-half  of  a 
peso  (approx.  a  five  gal.  measure  for  about  fifty  cents)  at 
the  Pocitos  of  Montevideo. 

Bouyat  says  in  his  book,  which  we  have  already  men- 
tioned : 

First — Fish  is  very  abundant  on  the  Uruguayan  coasts. 

Second — The  edible  species  are  abundant  enough  to  make 
the  fish  industry  a  profitable  occupation  under  wise  manage- 
ment. 

Third — The  demand  for  fresh  fish,  due  to  the  proximity 
of  the  cities  of  Buenos  Aires  and  Montevideo,  makes  it  even 
more  attractive  from  a  commercial  standpoint. 

Fourth — The  conditions,  which  will  be  found  for  the  future 
exploitation  of  the  industry,  are  to  a  great  extent  superior 
to  those  to  which  all  foreign  enterprises  will  have  to  be  sub- 
ject in  both  the  old  and  the  new  continents.     In  fact,  the 


PRESENT  AND  FOSSIL  FAUNA  135 

field  of  operations — the  La  Plata  River — which  is  a  veritable 
sea  at  Montevideo,  is  at  just  a  few  hours'  ride  from  the  center 
of  consumption.  The  fishing  boats,  in  case  of  storms,  have 
adequate  shelter  at  Montevideo  and  Maldonado,  and  while 
on  duty  at  night  have  the  advantage*  of  splendidly  lighted 
coast  line,  which  receives  its  illumination  from  the  light- 
houses of  Polonio,  Santa  Maria,  Jos6  Ignacio,  Punta  del 
Este,  Islas  de  Lobos  y  Flores,  Banco  Ingles,  and  Punta 
Brava. 

A  refrigerator  has  been  recently  constructed  at  the  port  of 
Montevideo,  in  order  to  facilitate  exportation  to  the  interior 
of  the  country.  The  city  of  Buenos  Aires  itself  has  developed 
a  profitable  fishing  industry  and  brings  great  quantities  of 
fish  from  Mar  del  Plata,  a  southern  port,  and  from  the  lakes 
of  Chascomus.  Montevideo  exports  from  twenty  to  thirty 
million  kilos  of  fresh  fish  annually.  There  are  plants  in 
Montevideo  and  Maldonado  for  the  preparation  of  canned 
and  salt  fish,  which  is  intended  for  shipment  to  points  in  the 
interior. 

The  Uruguay,  the  Parand  and  their  tributaries  have  big 
fish  such  as  the  snrubi,  pacfl,  pati,  manguruyi^,  etc.,  which 
average  as  much  aS  40  to  CO  kilos  in  weight  each,  delicious 
eating  and  quite  well  adapted  for  canning  purposes.  The 
Liebig  plant  of  Fray  Bentos,  a  port  of  the  Uruguay,  manu- 
factures fish  oil  for  its  own  machinery  and  for  export  pur- 
poses.    Schools  of  big  fish  are  constant  visitors  at  this  port. 

Tliere  is  no  ostricultural  plant  at  any  point  on  the  La 
Plata.  It  is  the  opinion  of  many  that  a  profitable  business 
could  be  developed  by  some  North  American  concern  which 
would  establish  in  Montevideo  an  oyster-farm  on  a  big  scale, 
with  two  cities  of  a  combined  population  of  more  than  two 
million  inhabitants  to  feed. 

The  20  to  30  million  kilos  of  fish  that  Montevideo  exports 
should  be  increased  to  80  or  100  million  for  consumption  in 
Buenos  Aires  and  the  rest  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  which, 
having  no  inland  streams,  the  only  fish  to  be  had  is  from  the 
lake  Chascomus  and  others  of  the  province  of  Buenos  Aires. 


136       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

The  Neuqueu  aud  other  streams  of  Patagouia  have  iish 
hatcheries  (salmon,  trout,  etc.)  for  fish  imported  from  the 
United  States,  but  the  great  distance  to  the  Buenos  Aires 
market  and  the  competition  with  the  La  Plata  fish  industry 
right  at  the  door  of  the  consumer  make  the  former  a  more 
risky  enterprise. 

The  wealth  represented  by  the  fish  industry  of  the  prin- 
cipal fish  markets  of  the  world  is  represented  by  the  statis- 
ical  figures  of  1910  as  given  below,  according  to  the  Interna- 
tional Council's  report  on  activities  on  the  sea : 

Year  1910 

Value — 

Million  Million 

Country  Kiloa  Dollars 

England 666  38 

Norway 629  12 

Scotland 442  14 

France 230  22 

Germany 166  8 

Holland 137  8 

Iceland 78  2 

Sweden 119 

Ireland 52 

United  States  America ,       ...  70 

See  the  synopsis  of  the  species  of  vertebrates,  cox^ied  from 
L.  C.  Bollo  ''l^ociones  de  Zoologia"  (published  in  Monte- 
video, in  1890,  in  five  volumes  with  540  illustrations,  at  Li- 
breria  Nacional  de  Barreiros  y  Ramos). 


PRESENT  AND  FOSSIL  FAUNA 


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CHArTER  X 
DEMOGRAPHY 

SUMMARY 

Composition  of  the  Present  Population  of  South  America — Demographic  CocflBcients 
Compared — Alcoholism,  factor  in  the  Mortality  rate — Growth  of  the  Large  Cities  of  South 
America. 

Composition  of  the  Present  Population  op 
South  America 

The  popiilatioii  of  South  America  as  a  whole,  represents 
the  issue  of  the  crossing  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  with 
the  Aborigines.  The  purity  of  the  indigenous  race  being 
now  found  only  in  isolated  districts  of  the  Andean  moun- 
tains and  on  the  plains  drained  by  the  Amazon,  Paraguay 
and  Parana.  Peru  and  Bolivia  have  a  preponderance  of  in- 
digenous population,  the  workingmen  in  the  mines  and  on 
the  farms  being  Indians  and  Mestizos.  The  same  thing  is 
true  of  Paraguay  and  Central  Brazil  where  the  Guaraui 
Indian  that  makes  up  the  bulk  of  the  working  population 
retains  his  racial  purity.  The  Indian  and  the  Mestizo  of 
Chile,  Bolivia,  Peru  and  other  countries  of  the  Andean 
region  has  by  nature  great  physical  strength  and  en- 
durance, and  the  added  fact  that  he  is  thoroughly  acclimated 
and  is  more  frugal  in  his  habits,  makes  him  a  more  competent 
worker  in  the  mines  than  the  European. 

Brazil  had  for  centuries  imported  negroes  from  Africa  for 
work  in  the  fields,  agriculture  being  at  that  time  its  main 
industry,  but  slavery  was  finally  abolished  without  having 
to  resort  to  a  conflict  such  as  the  war  of  secession,  which 
caused  so  much  bilteruess  and  sorrow  in  the  United  States 
of  America.     The  population  in  general  represents  a  mix- 

UO 


DEMOGRAPHY  141 

ture  of  IiidiaDS  of  the  Guaranies  family,  uegroes  aud 
Eiiropeaus.  During  the  last  few  years  the  European  ele- 
ment has  increased  considerably,  particularly  among  the 
Germans  and  Italians,  the  latter  settling  at  San  Paulo, 
Minas  and  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  the  former  at  Rio  Grande, 
Santa  Catalina,  Parana  and  other  places  farther  south.  The 
German  immigrants  and  their  descendants  who  have  been 
educated  under  Germanic  methods,  hoped  aud  expected  to 
see  Germany  triumphant  in  the  world's  greatest  war,  an<l 
planned  to  secede  from  Brazil  and  form  a  separate  state 
under  the  dominion  of  the  empire. 

The  Portuguese  population  held  first  place  until  1873, 
when  it  ceded  to  the  Italian  which  now  constitutes  half  of 
the  foreign  population.  Brazil  has  more  than  two  and  one- 
half  million  foreigners  out  of  a  total  of  24,000,000,  or  10  per 
cent  of  the  whole.  Ai-gentina,  according  to  the  census  of 
1914,  had  2,358,000  foreigners,  of  whom  there  were  1,470,000 
men  and  884,000  women,  or  a  total  [topulatiou  of  7,885,000, 
the  foreign  element  therefore  representing  30  per  cent  of  the 
population.  Buenos  Aires,  the  capital,  showed  still  a 
larger  proportion,  for  out  of  a  total  of  1.575,000  there  were 
777,000  foreigners,  almost  an  even  50  per  cent.  In  191G,  the 
foreign  element  of  Argentina  was  divided  as  follows: 
Italians,  92l),000;  Spaniards,  820,000;  Russians,  93,000; 
French,  79,000;  Euglish,  27,000;  Germans,  2G,000;  Austria- 
Hungarians,  38,000;  Turks,  04,000;  Swiss,  14,000,  as  per 
data  furuished  by  '*La  Naciou"  of  Buenos  Aires,  January 
1,  1917. 

The  Italians,  who  hold  first  place,  are  the  most  thorough 
and  efficient  agriculturists,  excepting  the  "golondrina"  im- 
migrants, who  go  to  the  La  Pftita  to  engage  specially  in 
agricultural  pursuits  during  the  farming  season,  returning 
to  Italy  in  April  or  May.  Next  to  the  Italians,  the 
Spaniards  represent  the  largest  number  of  any  one  nation- 
ality, in  fact  they  have  been  the  only  immigrants  that  South 
America  has  had  in  recent  years. 

The  Oriental  Republic  of  Uruguay,  with  one  and  one-half 


142       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

milliou  inhabitants,  has  250,000  foreigners,  among  whom  the 
Italians  and  Spaniards  are  in  the  majority.  There  are  no 
Indians  in  this  republic  as  in  the  other  countries  of  South 
America,  not  excluding  Argentina,  which  has  many  in  the 
Patagonia  region  and  on  the  Chaco,  the  two  northern  and 
southern  extremities  of  the  country. 

In  Montevideo,  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are 
foreigners,  but  in  the  country  the  native  or  Creole  element 
is  on  the  ascendancy.  The  Creoles  are  descendants  of  the 
Spaniards  and  Italians  principally,  with  a  very  small  jier- 
centage  of  Charrua  blood  among  the  gauchos.  The  latter 
are  a  healthy  and  strong  people,  and  as  a  rule  superior 
in  intelligence  to  the  European  i^easants  who  come  to  the 
La  Plata,  and  can  adapt  themselves  to  all  kinds  of  labor. 
The  disappearauce  of  the  Indian  from  the  Uruguayan  repub- 
lic is  due  to  the  fact  that  this  region  was  the  main  battle 
ground  during  the  wars  waged  by  the  natives  against  the 
Spaniards,  Portuguese  and  Brazilians  during  the  eight 
years  of  struggle  that  Montevideo  suffered  at  the  hands  of 
the  tyrant  Rosas,  at  that  time  dictator  of  Buenos  Aires, 
as  well  as  to  the  many  civil  wars  which  had  taken  place 
within  the  republic  from  time  to  time.  His  passion  for  war, 
linked  with  his  love  for  freedom,  were  the  fundameuiai 
causes  of  his  disappearance.  In  1830,  there  yet  remained 
a  large  Indian  population,  numbering  thousands,  in  the 
northern  part  of  Uruguay.  They  engaged  in  battle  with  the 
army  of  Montevideo.  General  Rivera  (Don  Beruabe),  who 
was  considered  one  of  the  most  brilliant  militarists  of  the 
age,  was  killed.  The  Indians,  after  being  defeated,  scattered 
throughout  the  whole  country,  finally  settling  among  the 
whites,  and  a  new  nation  of  vigorous  and  intelligent  men  was 
born — the  Gauchos. 

Demographic  Coefficients  Comtarbd 

Vegetative  growth,  or  the  difference  between  births  and 
deaths,  is  the  essential  force  of  young  nations  because  it  is 


DEMOGRAPHY  143 

the  priucipal  factor  iu  their  growth.  Immigratiou  is  an- 
other contributiug  factor,  but  this  is  not  coutiuuous,  for 
there  are  periods,  as  for  instance,  that  between  the  years 
1914  and  1919,  when  this  contributing  factor  is  suspended. 
The  countries  of  South  America  mostly  favored  by  nature 
for  the  increase  of  the  population  are  Argentina  and 
Uruguay,  for  reason  of  their  exceptionally  healthful 
climate,  their  abundance  of  food  products  and  their  absence 
of  epidemic  (smallpox,  tj^^hus,  diphtheria,  malaria  fever, 
etc.)  as  the  result  of  adequate  hygienic  measures.  According 
to  data  secured  through  the  Demographic  Bureau  of  Uru- 
gxinj,  founded  by  L.  C.  Bollo,  the  vegetative  growth  of  the  fol- 
lowing countries  is  given  on  a  basis  of  1,000  inhabitants :  Re- 
public of  Uruguay,  22;  Argentina,  21;  England,  13;  Ger- 
many, 12;  Austria,  7;  Italy,  7;  Chile,  0. 

Brazil  was  dreaded  by  the  immigrants  who  were  kept 
away  by  the  terrible  diseases  to  which  the  country  was  sub- 
ject. The  mortality  rate  of  Santos,  Rio  de  Janeiro  and 
other  ports  had  reached  an  alarming  figure.  Under  the 
American  methods  of  hygiene  of  today,  the  yellow  fever  has 
completely  disappeared. 

The  Oriental  Republic  of  Uruguay,  with  less  than  half  the 
population  of  Chile,  shows  a  higher  rate  of  increase.  Chile 
has  30  deaths  to  every  36  births  per  1,000  inhabitants,  or  a 
vegetative  growth  of  (i  per  1,000,  while  Uruguay  has  a  growth 
of  22,  almost  four  times  as  much  as  Chile.  Its  birth  rate  is 
higher  than  the  latter  and  its  mortality  rate  less  than  half 
of  its  birth  rate.  Besides,  the  republic  of  Chile  has  little  or 
no  immigration.  It  would  be  interesting  to  present  the 
demographic  data  of  other  countries,  but  though  many  may 
have  an  established  civil  registry,  they  have  no  complete 
demographic  statistics.  But  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the 
rest  of  the  South  American  countries  where  the  indigenes 
are  in  the  majority,  pay  little  attention  to  hygiene  and 
the  consequence  is  that  they  are  decimated  by  typhus, 
tuberculosis,  small-pox,  diphtheria,  syphilis  and  other  dread- 
ful contagious  diseases.    The  Republic  of  Uruguay  has  di- 


144       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

rectecl  the  passage  of  a  law  compelling  the  construction  of  a 
modern  sewerage  system  in  all  towns  or  villages  of  over 
10,000  population.  This  work  of  construction  is  under  the 
direction  of  the  well-known  American  firm — Ulien  of 
Washington. 

Alcoholism  Factor  in  the  Mortality  Rate 

Alcoholism,  a  world-wide  evil,  is,  next  to  tuberculosis,  the 
biggest  factor  in  the  increase  of  the  mortality  rate.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Fernet,  10  per  cent  of  the  mortality  of  Paris 
is  due  to  alcoholism,  and  according  to  Dr.  Salterain  of  Mon- 
tevideo, 5  per  cent  of  the  mortality  of  the  latter  city  may  be 
attributed  to  the  same  cause,  w^hich  is  low  in  comparison  to 
what  it  is  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  as  will  be  seen  by  the 
figures  below,  which  appear  in  Dr.  Salterain's  book  entitled 
"Sobre  el  Alcoholismo."  The  author  of  the  said  book  is  a 
highly  intellectual  Uruguayan  physician  and  one  of  the 
leading  anti-alcohol  propagandists  of  the  First  Anti-alco- 
holic Congress  held  in  Montevideo  in  1918. 

Number  of  liters  of  pure  alcohol  per  inhabitant  con- 
summed  annually  in  the  form  of  whiskey,  beer,  wine,  etc. 
Annual  average  from  1801  to  1895  inclusive: 

Liters  Liters 

France 15.83  Roumania 9.74 

Belgium 12.58  Germany 9.25 

Spain 12.05  British  Isles 8.17 

Denmark 10 .  87  Austria-Hungary 7 .  99 

Switzerland 10 .  73  Uruguay 5 .  30 

Italy 10.30  Russia 5.21 

Portugal 10.10  Sweden 4.43 

Central  Europe 10.39 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  Spain,  Italy  and  Portugal, 
though  showing  a  high  rate,  not  many  drunkards  are  found, 
due  to  the  fact  that  they  consume  mostly  wines  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  stronger  alcoholic  drinks  like  absinth, 
whiskey,  gin,  cognac,  etc. 

According  to  notes  by  Dr.  Etchepare,  physician  at  the 
hospital  for  the  insane  (Asylum  of  Montevideo),  21  per  cent 
of  the  mentally  deranged  owe  their  condition  to  alcoholism. 


DEMOGRAPHY  145 

We  have  no  exact  data  regarding  this  matter  on  the  other 
countries  of  South  America,  but  it  is  widely  known  that 
Chile  and  a  few  other  countries  show  a  high  rate  of  alco- 
holic consumption.  The  mortality  rate  of  80  per  1,000  in- 
habitants in  Chile  is  largely  due  to  alcoholism,  while 
Uruguay,  which  shows  a  small  percentage  of  alcohol  con- 
sumed, has  a  mortality  rate  of  less  than  15  per  1,000.  It  is  in 
countries  showing  a  constantly  increasing  mortality  rate 
where  dry  laws  should  be  enacted,  something  that  would  be 
almost  impossible  in  Chile,  as  the  biggest  land-owners  whose 
large  vineyards  reijreseut  a  great  deal  of  their  wealth,  would 
consider  themselves  bankrupt  the  moment  that  any  law 
prohibited  the  use  of  wine  and  chicha.  These  same  land- 
owners now  control  and  sit  in  Parliament  to  draft  the 
laws  of  the  country.  It  is  essential,  in  order  that  nations 
may  sweep  away  all  obstacles  which  obstruct  their  progress, 
to  first  eliminate  from  all  law-making  bodies,  the  commercial 
strategists  who  enact  laws  for  their  own  exclusive  benefit 
and  with  no  thought  of  public  health  or  morals.  If  the  wel- 
fare of  mankind  demands  that  no  vineyards  be  planted  be- 
cause the  wine  and  chicha  therefrom  are  detrimental  to  the 
health  of  the  individual,  -then  why  not  plant  apple,  pear  and 
peach  trees,  which  fruits  have  a  sure  market  everywhere? 

The  wealthy  land-holders  of  South  America  should  not 
lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  condition  of  the  working 
people  of  the  rural  districts  is  bad,  that  it  has  to  be  im- 
proved, and  if  this  is  not  done  they  will  be  laying  the  founda- 
tion for  Bolshevism,  and  conditions  then  carried  to  the 
other  extreme  causing  the  suppression  of  private  property. 
Experiments  are  being  made  in  Chile  in  connection  with  the 
preparation  of  raisins  so  that  the  exportation  of  grapes  in  a 
dried  form  may  be  made  easy,  as  is  done  in  Spain.  In 
Uruguay  and  in  Argentina  the  workers  in  the  fields  use  the 
infusion  of  "mate"  leaves  (ilex-paragnayensis)  and  no 
alcohol.  The  workingman  believes  that  cold  water  drinking 
during  fatigue  produces  discomfort  and  sickness  at  times, 
and  so  whenever  he  can  procure  mate  he  will  not  drink 


146       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT   ' 

alcohol.  This  infusion  is  very  healthful  and  even  nutritious, 
has  a  smaller  quantity  of  the  alkaloids  found  in  coffee  and 
tea  and  is  very  economical. 

The  power  of  nations  is  not  based  on  the  number  of  its 
inhabitants,  but  on  the  race  which  forms  the  kernel  of  its 
population.  One  million  white  men  are  worth  far  more  to 
a  nation  than  five  or  six  million  Indians  or  Creoles,  the 
cross  between  the  Indian  and  the  European.  Thus,  Uruguay 
stands  as  the  first  among  the  countries  of  South  America  in 
the  evolution  of  modern  ideas.  It  was  the  first  to  establish 
the  secularization  of  cemeteries  formerly  in  the  hands  of  the 
Catholic  church,  as  well  as  equality  of  civil  rights  among 
foreigners  and  natives  (1869)  ;  the  first  to  establish  laical 
compulsory  education  (1879),  compulsory  registration  and 
civil  marriages  (1879),  absolute  divorce  (1908),  absolute 
separation  of  church  and  state,  and  absolute  religious 
liberty  (1918)  embodied  in  the  new  constitutions,  also  pro- 
portional representation  and  a  collegiate  government 
wherein  the  functions  of  the  Executive  are  divided  between 
the  President  of  the  Republic  and  an  Administrative  Board 
of  nine  members.  It  is  a  form  of  transition  between  the 
collegiate  government  of  Switzerland  and  the  presidential 
system  of  the  other  republics  of  America. 

Growth  of  Large  Cities 

No  other  countries  in  South  America  show  as  large  an 
increase  in  population  as  Argentina  and  Uruguay.  The 
latter  country's  steady  and  rapid  growth  is  shown  by  the 
following  figures: 

Uruguay 

Yeax  Population 

1796 30,000 

1829 74,000 

1852 131,000 

1860 '. 227,000 

1873 450,000 

1895 822,000 

1919 1,500,000 


DEMOGRAPHY  147 

The  City  of  Buenos  Aires,  the  capital  of  Argentina,  shows 
also  a  wonderful  gradual  increase  as  follows: 

Buenos  Aires 

Year  Population 

1801 40,000 

1822 55,000 

1852 76,000 

1869 117,000 

1889 523,000 

1919 1,600,000 

Next  to  Buenos  Aires,  Montevideo  shows  a  more  rapid 
growth  than  any  other  South  American  city,  and  the  figures 
below  are  self-explanatory: 

Montevideo 

Year  Population 

1803 4,700 

1813 13,000 

1852 33,000 

1860 57,000 

1884 164,000 

1889 216,000 

1919 450,000 

Montevideo's  population  is  approximately  one-third  that 
of  the  whole  country  (Uruguay),  while  Buenos  Aires  has 
about  one-fifth  of  the  population  of  Argentina.  It  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  Montevideo  is  the  capital  and  com- 
mercial center  of  a  country,  the  area  of  which  is  only  about 
200,000  square  kilometers,  and  Buenos  Aires  is  the  capital 
of  a  country  covering  3,000,000  square  kilometers. 

Brazil  has  several  important  cities  which  show  a  large 
increase  in  population  during  the  last  few  years,  particularly 
Rio  de  Janeiro  and  San  Paulo,  the  latter  having  grown  from 
250,000  in  1800,  to  more  than  400,000  in  1919. 

The  city  of  Montevideo,  besides  having  the  advantageous 
commercial  position  at  the  entrance  of  the  La  Plata  estuary 
and  at  the  same  time  being  on  the  route  of  steamers  bound 
for  the  Pacific  via  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  has  a  specially 
attractive  seashore,  inasmuch  as  the  improperly  named  Rio 
de  la  Plata  does  not  reach  Montevideo,  which  is  on  a  gulf 
formed  by  the  Atlantic,  as  its  salty  and  clear  waters  indi- 


148       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

cate.  A  large  number  of  raisers  of  live-stock  in  Brazil,  with 
business  interests  in  the  state  of  Rio  Grande,  make  their 
home  in  Montevideo,  and  many  others  come  from  different 
parts  of  Brazil  to  enjoy  the  many  advantages  which  the 
beaches  of  Montevideo  afford  the  pleasure-seeker.  Its 
thoroughly  modern  and  luxurious  hotels  compare  with  the 
best  in  the  world.  The  ''Casino  del  Parque,"  on  the  seashore, 
is  as  sumptuous  as  that  of  Monte  Carlo,  and  with  its  roulette 
and  other  games  contributes  more  than  a  million  dollars 
annually  to  the  municipality,  a  large  part  being  used  for 
charity  purposes.  Another  very  attractive  Casino  at  a  short 
distance  from  the  city  on  the  Carrasco  beach  resembles  that 
of  Ostend.  This  Casino,  which  cost  |2,000,000  to  construct, 
compares  with  the  best  in  Europe.  Montevideo  also  enter- 
tains large  numbers  of  tourists  from  Buenos  Aires,  where 
they  have  very  warm  summers.  The  large  influx  of  tourists 
into  Montevideo  during  the  summer  season  is  also  largely 
due  to  the  excellent  accommodations  offered  by  the  comfort- 
able steamers  which  cross  the  estuary  of  La  Plata  during 
the  night  between  the  hours  of  10 :00  p.  m,  and  6 :00  a.  m.  The 
steamship  lines,  which  have  service  along  the  Uruguay,  per- 
mit the  inhabitants  of  Paraguay  and  those  of  the  eastern 
Argentine  region,  to  change  to  Montevideo  without  any 
difficulty  or  inconvenience,  while  at  the  same  time  the 
Brazil  trains  bring  large  numbers  of  Brazilians  who  regu- 
larly' spend  their  summers  at  the  beaches  of  Montevideo,  prop- 
erly called  the  "Ostend"  of  Kouth  America. 


CHAPTER  XI 

POLITICAL  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  VARIOUS 
SOUTH  AMERICAN  STATES 

Following  the  imlependeuce  of  the  several  South  American 
States  which  comprised  Spanish  America,  came  the  dis- 
ordered conditions  which  are  a  natural  result  in  newly 
formed  nations  born  to  independence  without  a  previously 
acquired  political  education.  Consequently  there  were  revo- 
lutions after  revolutions  in  all  the  different  states  until  they 
secured  a  definite  organization.  The  Europeans  above  all, 
have  disdainfully  looked  upon  these  states  which  have  lived 
in  almost  constant  strife,  the  Europeans  failing  to  under- 
stand the  spirit  of  justice  which  has  been  the  prime  in- 
stigator of  the  revolutionary  convulsions  among  the  South 
American  populace,  who  have  revolted  from  time  to  time 
against  the  powers  which  have  been  guilty  of  tyrannical 
acts  and  which  have  violated  the  rights  of  the  citizens,  con- 
trary to  what  their  respective  state  constitutions  prescribe. 

A  fraudulent  election,  or  a  violation  of  the  rights  of  the 
citizens,  in  some  form  or  another,  has  nearly  always  served 
as  the  spark  that  has  kindled  the  revolutions.  The  Euro- 
peans cannot  understand  the  pride  of  the  South  Americans, 
for  the  very  simple  reason  that  the  former  have  been  born 
and  reared  in  a  servile  school,  a  political  school  which  trains 
the  individual  to  look  upon  his  king  or  emperor,  and  the 
powerful  military  government  with  its  imposing  army, 
as  an  almost  divine,  superhuman  entity. 

The  Parliaments  of  nearly  all  of  the  European  nations 
may  be  anything  but  the  result  of  regularly  conducted  elec- 
tions by  the  people  in  selecting  the  most  honest,  impartial 
and  patriotic  of  their  citizens  to  serve  in  what  should  be  a 

U9 


150       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

representative  body.  Instead,  they  are  composed  of  the 
most  servile  individuals  whom  the  governing  authorities  can 
possibly  find,  and  who  receive  from  the  same  authorities  the 
support  of  the  oflScial  element  in  order  to  be  sure  of  winning 
the  elections.  The  government  respects  no  scruples  in  pub- 
licly recommending  the  official  candidates. 

The  traveler,  visiting  the  various  European  countries,  can- 
not but  feel  surprised  at  the  almost  unbelievable  blind  obedi- 
ence of  the  masses,  not  necessarily  to  the  laws  enacted  in 
Parliament,  but  to  the  most  trifling  of  police  regulations  and 
the  whims  of  minor  authorities.  Obey  is  tlie  icatcJiword, 
obey  in  silence  and  ivithoiit  protest.  Such  was  the  govern- 
ment of  Germany,  Austria  and  other  European  nations. 

The  unfairness  of  the  accumulated  vote,  entitling  each 
citizen  to  as  many  as  three  votes,  elections  by  cities,  which 
for  reason  of  this  or  the  other  special  privilege  of  nation- 
ality can  elect  a  certain  number  of  deputies  when  some 
other  larger  and  more  important  city  elects  just  one-half  of 
the  number,  and  many  other  similar  unjust  regulations  have 
been  in  vogue  in  Austria  and  Germany,  these  regula- 
tions having  been  tacitly  tolerated  by  the  so-called  citizens. 
Any  of  these  extreme  violations  would  have  been  the  cause 
of  an  anned  revolution  in  South  America. 

We  will  not  deny  that  many  revolutions  have  not  been 
altogether  justified,  but  it  is  more  worthy  of  the  man  to 
revolt  against  injustice  even  though  the  faults  of  govern- 
ments be  exaggerated,  than  to  maintain  an  attitude  of  abject 
servility  which  is  characteristic  of  the  European,  tvith  hut 
a  feio  exceptions. 

When  Carlos  V  assumed  the  control  of  Spain  in  1519,  he 
destroyed  the  power  of  the  Cabildos,  representative  bodies 
of  national  sovereignty,  and  when  subsequent  Indian  legisla- 
tion reduced  the  powers  of  these  institutions  to  a  complete 
nullity  by  surrendering  everything  to  the  absolute  and  arbi- 
trary system  of  the  king's  central  government,  Spanish  lib- 
erty ceased  to  exist,  as  did  the  party  of  the  Comuneros  of 
Castilla  under  Don  Juan  de  Padilla  and  his  followers,  who 


POLITICAL  ORGANIZATION  151 

fought  so  nobly  in  defense  of  independence  and  freedom,  and 
against  the  imijerial  and  germanic  system  of  him  who  dis- 
played the  double  diadem  of  King  of  Spain  and  Emperor  of 
Germany. 

It  is  true  that  on  certain  important  occasions,  the  Open 
Cabildos  of  America  were  the  people's  tribunals,  but  these 
assemblies,  where  each  and  every  citizen  had  the  privilege 
of  being  heard,  met  in  session  but  few  times. 

It  may  be  said  that  since  the  revolution  of  the  party  of 
the  Comuneros  of  Castilla,  Carlos  V,  Felipe  II  and  the 
other  kings  governed  South  American  possessions  through 
their  viceroy  just  as  they  pleased,  excepting  a  few  times  when 
the  people  of  the  American  colonies  rose  up  in  protest  and 
succeeded  in  securing  an  audience. 

And  so  Spanish  America  was  under  an  arbitrary  form  of 
government  inspired  by  what  personally  suited  the  king  and 
his  delegates,  as  it  is  a  well  established  fact  that  the  South 
American  colonies  did  not  belong  to  Spain  but  were  the 
exclusive  property  of  the  king.  We  read  in  the  book  entitled 
"Memorias  Sobre  la  Influeucia  Social  de  la  Conquista 
Colonial  de  ios  Espaiioles  en  Chile"  (Treatise  on  the  Influ- 
ence of  Spanish  Colonial  Conquest  on  Chilean  Society),  by 
the  eminent  Chilean  writer  Lastarria,  the  following:  "The 
Cabildos  of  the  Chilean  part  of  the  population  had  no  other 
sphere  of  action  than  the  jurisdiction  intrusted  to  the  Town 
Mayors  and  the  police  powers  conferred  upon  the  councilmeu 
in  such  cases  as  the  law  prescribed,  or  on  the  will  of  the 
official  governing  the  colony  in  the  name  and  as  representa- 
tive of  the  monarch.  This  institution  was  therefore  of  no 
benefit  to  the  people;  on  the  contrary,  it  favored  and  was 
devoted  to  the  throne  on  which  its  existence  depended. 
It  was  in  fact,  though  of  secondary  importance,  an  instru- 
ment of  the  will  of  the  king  and  his  individual  interests. 
We  can  therefore  establish  beyond  a  doubt  the  fact  that  the 
despotic  monarchy  in  all  its  deformity  and  with  all  its  vices 
tvas  the  political  form  of  government  from  lohich  our  society 
sprang  and  developed,  for  such  was  its  constitution  and  its 


152       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

mode  of  being  during  all  of  the  colonial  era.  This  political 
form  of  government  spread  its  corrupting  influence  in  our 
society  all  the  more  energetically  for  the  reason  that  to  this 
system  alone  was  reserved  the  right  to  create,  inspire  and 
direct  our  habits,  and  further,  that  it  was  supported  by  the 
religious  power  with  which  it  formed  a  confederacy  on  which 
was  founded  the  theoretic  omnipotent  despotism  that  con- 
quers all." 

The  Cabildo  of  Buenos  Aires  consisted  of  twelve  members, 
four  of  whom  were  life  appointees,  and  the  balance  for  a 
certain  specified  number  of  years.  In  smaller  cities  the 
Cabildos  had  from  six  to  twelve  members  according  to  their 
importance,  besides  exercising  duties  in  the  administration 
of  justice,  such  as  Mayor  Ordinary,  Judge  of  Festivals, 
Police  Judge,  Prosecutor,  Defender  of  the  Poor,  etc. 

Another  factor  which  robbed  this  assembly  of  the  emi- 
nently popular  characteristic  that  the  municipal  spirit  of 
the  institution  required,  was  the  presence  of  the  Governor, 
who  was  its  President  Inherent,  and  though  he  had  no  voice 
in  the  proceedings,  he  had  the  right  to  vote  in  case  of  a  tie. 
Therefore,  the  influence  that  the  presence  of  a  magistrate 
invested  with  such  authority  had  on  the  members  of  the 
Cabildo,  can  well  be  imagined.  Notwithstanding  this,  the 
Cabildos  gave  legal  recognition  to  the  struggle  for  inde- 
pendence right  at  its  incipiency,  as  they  assumed  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  people  in  the  absence  of  the  legal  authority, 
on  the  imprisonment  of  the  sovereign. 

"This  deficiency  in  the  guarantees  offered  by  the  Spanish 
government,  will  be  the  cause  for  the  first  disturbance  within 
the  patriotic  government,  the  proceedings  of  which  are  a  re- 
production of  the  Colonial  government;  the  same  tyranny 
over  the  masses  by  the  small  oligarchy  in  control  of  the 
government;  the  same  lack  of  respect  for  public  opinion, 
which  is  not  in  any  way  consulted  in  public  matters;  the 
same  dictatorial  and  despotic  manner  in  dealing  with  the 
various  sections  of  the  country,  which  compose  the  nation." 

When  the  divers  divisions  of  what  once  constituted  the 


POLITICAL  OKGANIZATION  153 

great  domain  belonging  to  the  King  of  Spain,  secured  their 
independence,  the  newly  constituted  governments  followed 
the  same  despotic  methods  of  government.  Buenos  Aires 
established  since  1810,  a  government  under  the  direction  of  a 
society  of  influential  individuals,  who,  though  cultured,  did 
not  understand  the  rudimentary  principles  of  a  free  govern- 
ment. This  society  was  known  as  "Logia  Lautaro,"  a  secret 
order  founded  by  Miranda,  which  continued  to  rule  despite 
the  fact  that  it  did  so  in  violation  of  the  law,  inasmuch  as 
public  matters  should  not  be  carried  on  secretly. 

This  group  of  well-intentioned  but  politically  unfit  citizens 
were  the  rightful  heirs  of  Spanish  political  incompetence 
based  on  despotism.  All  the  civil  wars  which  have  taken 
place  can  be  attributed  to  the  ineflSciency  in  governmental 
afifairs,  inherited  from  the  mother  country. 

Yet  practice  and  experience  have  enabled  the  South 
American  countries  to  become  exemplary  governments,  many 
of  which  could  serve  as  models  of  progressivism  for  some  of 
the  governments  of  Europe,  specially  as  some  of  the  latter 
are  just  beginning  their  apprenticeship  in  the  matter  of 
government  organization  deserving  of  popular  approbation. 
In  this  connection  we  ask :  "How  many  lustrums  will  elapse 
before  they  become  thoroughly  republican  forms  of  govern- 
ment?" Not  long,  let  us  hope,  for  the  people  have  awakened 
and  buried  the  crowns  deep  in  the  ground. 

Following  their  independence,  the  three  northern  repub- 
lics— Venezuela,  Nueva  Granada  and  Ecuador — formed  a 
confederacy  under  the  name  of  Colombia,  selecting  as  their 
first  President,  the  Liberator  Bolivar.  This  confederacy 
was  short-lived,  as  Bolivar's  resignation  brought  about  its 
dissolution  and  the  organization  of  three  separate  and  in- 
dependent states  was  effected,  as  follows:  Venezuela,  a  fed- 
eral republic;  Colombia,  a  unitarian  republic,  formerly 
federal ;  Ecuador,  a  unitarian  republic. 

Peru,  Bolivia,  Chile,  Uruguay  and  Paraguay  are  unitarian 
republics.  Argentina  and  Brazil,  the  two  most  important 
countries  of  South  America,  have  adopted  a  federal  form 


154       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

of  government  with  a  constitution  patterned  after  that  of 
the  United  States  of  America. 

As  to  the  relations  between  Church  and  State,  all  these  re- 
publics exercise  religious  liberty,  but  in  Argentina,  in  Chile, 
and  in  the  other  Spanish-speaking  countries,  the  Church 
has  maintained  its  influence  to  the  extent  that  it  has  pre- 
vented the  enactment  of  laws  granting  divorce,  with  excep- 
tion of  Uruguay,  which  has  the  most  progressive  legislation 
of  all  the  countries  of  South  America.  Both  Uruguay  and 
Brazil  have  separated  the  State  from  the  Church. 

Primary  education  is  compulsory  in  all  the  different 
South  American  states,  and  the  university  training  in  some 
of  them  competes  with  leading  European  countries  and  with 
the  United  States  of  America.  The  primary  schools  of  Uru- 
guay and  Argentina  show  a  superior  rating  over  those  of 
France,  Italy  and  Spain.  Other  places  show  a  large  per- 
centage of  illiteracy,  particularly  where  the  indigenes  are  in 
the  majority. 

All  the  mediums  that  modern  civilization  has  to  offer  for 
the  general  advancement  of  the  individual — primary  and 
technical  institutions  of  learning,  scientific  societies,  up-to- 
the-minute  illustrated  magazines  and  dailies,  fashion  estab- 
ments,  municipal  water  plants,  heating  plants,  sewerage 
systems,  comfortable  public  conveyances,  luxurious  theatres, 
electric  lighting  systems,  magnificent  hotels,  etc.,  etc. — are  to 
be  found  in  all  large  cities  and  important  commercial 
centers  of  South  America. 

The  large  operatic  companies  of  Milan,  Italy,  visit  Buenos 
Aires  and  Montevideo  every  winter,  remaining  during  the 
months  of  May,  June,  Julj^  and  August.  Dramatic,  light- 
opera  and  vaudeville  companies  frequently  visit  Buenos 
Aires,  Montevideo,  Rio  Janeiro,  Santiago  and  other  large 
cities. 

The  modistes  and  tailors  offer  the  very  latest  Parisian 
creations,  and  as  to  general  innovations,  many  new  inven- 
tions are  introduced  in  South  America  before  they  become 
known  in  Europe,  for  in  order  to  avoid  European  competi- 


POLITICAL  ORGANIZATION  155 

tion,  the  merchants  turn  to  South  America  with  all  the 
novelties  that  the  mind  of  the  inventor  can  conceive. 

There  is  no  restriction  to  the  admission  of  men  of  all 
nationalities  and  the  use  of  passports  is  unknown.  Every- 
body enters  and  leaves  the  ports  without  permission  of  any 
kind,  provided  the  individual  is  not  a  notorious  vagrant  or 
criminal.  It  is  not  supposed  that  the  color  of  the  skin  im- 
parts either  intellectual  or  moral  superiority,  neither  is  it 
feared  that  the  labor  of  the  foreigner  will  in  any  way  hurt 
that  of  the  native,  as  is  the  belief  of  the  North  Americans, 
Australians  and  South  Africans,  who  bar  the  Japanese  and 
the  Chinese.  Intellectual  superiority  belongs  to  him  who 
studies  and  toils  the  hardest. 

The  member  of  the  small  negro  population  that  remains 
in  the  La  Plata,  is  not  only  mentally  and  morally  the  equal 
of  the  average  European  immigrant,  but  is  far  more  in- 
telligent than  the  immigrants  who  come  from  certain  parts 
of  Russia,  the  Balkans  and  other  backward  countries  of  the 
Old  World.  Some  of  these  poor  unfortunates  are  not  only 
ignorant  but  almost  barbarians,  while  a  large  number  of  the 
Negroes  have  been  brought  uji  in  the  homes  of  cultured 
people  who  have  given  them  a  thorough  education.  Nearly 
all  the  Negroes  of  this  region  can  read  and  write  and  are 
unusually  refined  of  manner. 

The  South  Americans  have  not  committed  the  error  that 
the  North  Americans  did  in  building  a  Chinese  wall  between 
white  and  black,  in  the  way  of  barriers  in  hotels,  barber- 
shops, etc.,  and  even  on  railroads  where  they  arrange  to 
have  separate  ticket-oflSces  for  the  colored  people. 

Had  the  blacks  intermarried  with  the  whites  it  would  have 
taken  only  a  few  generations  of  mulattos  with  each  new 
generation  lighter-complexioned  than  the  preceding  one,  for 
the  black  coloring  to  have  disappeared  as  it  has  in  the  La 
Plata,  and  as  it  is  gradually  disappearing  in  Brazil,  the 
Negro  being  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  total  white  popula- 
tion. If  the  barrier  continues,  in  time  there  will  be  15,  20, 
30,  40  million  and  more  men  who  will  have  consummate 


156       SOUTH  AMEEICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

hatred  for  the  rest  of  their  countrymen  of  another  race,  and 
this  causes  the  weakness  of  nations. 

Political  Heritage  of  Spain 

It  is  in  order  to  explain  the  idea  that  the  Spaniards  had 
as  to  the  functions  of  the  State  and  the  rights  and  duties  of 
the  citizens,  so  that  the  reader  may  form  an  opinion  and  have 
a  clear  understanding  as  to  many  of  the  historical  events 
which  have  taken  place  in  the  countries  of  South  America. 
We  have  been  specially  favored  by  the  opportunity  afforded 
us  to  read  about  the  events  as  described  in  the  history  of 
Spain,  whether  it  refers  to  Spain  as  the  mother  country  in 
its  internal  development,  or  in  its  relations  with  its  col- 
onies in  America,  written  by  English  and  American  writers 
of  note,  such  as  Hume,  Prescott,  Robertson,  etc.,  who  in  our 
opinion  appear  more  impartial  than  the  Spanish  historians 
who,  imbued  with  erroneous  ideas  as  to  what  patriotism 
should  be,  are  not  sufficiently  independent  themselves  to 
speak  authoritatively. 

There  has  recently  appeared  a  very  interesting  book  by  the 
eminent  Professor  William  R.  Shepherd  of  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, in  the  city  of  New  York,  which  book  has  been  trans- 
lated into  Spanish  by  the  distinguished  VenezAielan  pub- 
licist Don  R.  Blanco  Fombona.  The  reader,  who  is  desirous 
of  a  more  thorough  knowledge  of  the  political  history  of 
South  America,  should  read  this  instructive  volume  entitled 
'*La  America  Latiua"  (Latin  America).  Professor  Shep- 
herd treats  of  Spanish  psychology  as  a  competent  authority 
only  can,  for  besides  being  thoroughly  conversant  with 
world  history,  he  has  lived  in  Spain  and  visited  some  of  the 
South  American  countries. 

With  reference  to  government.  Professor  Shepherd  says: 
"To  the  Spaniard,  for  example,  his  village,  town  or  province 
was  his  country.  What  lay  beyond  local  bounds  was  some- 
thing to  be  regulated  by  officials  in  whose  appointment,  pre- 
sumably, he  had  no  choice.  An  absolute  monarchy  and  an 
absolute    church,    that    would    safeguard    the    individual 


POLITICAL  OKGANIZATION  157 

against  a  foreign  foe,  and  alien  faith,  were  all  that  could  be 
desired  in  larger  concerns.  Accordingly,  whether  he  lived 
in  his  native  land  or  in  a  distant  colony,  he  felt  more  or  less 
content,  so  long  as  his  local  privileges  were  undisturbed. 
The  spirit  of  individualism  was  strong,  but  its  manifestation 
worked  within  narrow  lines.  On  this  foundation  Spain, 
and  to  a  great  extent  Portugal,  based  their  respective 
systems  of  colonial  administration. 

"On  the  other  hand,  following  equally  the  Roman  prin- 
ciple of  'divide  and  rule,'  powers,  duties  and  privileges  were 
rather  vaguely  defined,  with  the  result  that  officials,  classes 
and  .individuals  were  set  off  deftly  against  one  another." 

"No  colonial  authority  was  permitted  to  grow  too  strong, 
and  no  colonial  counterpoise  to  become  too  weak  to  serve 
the  interests  of  the  mother  country.  Every  person,  what- 
ever his  rank  or  station,  and  every  governing  body  enjoyed 
the  privilege  of  communicating  directly  with  the  govern- 
ment in  Spain,  and  the  exercise  of  the  privilege  was  con- 
stantly encouraged.  By  this  means  temptation  to  arbitrary 
conduct  could  be  restrained,  no  less  than  expressions  of  dis- 
satisfaction checked  or  mollified  which  otherwise  might 
bring  on  a  revolt.  Where  abuses  existed,  they  were  apt  to 
take  the  form  of  pecuniary  corruption,  rather  than  of  willful 
misrule." 

Regarding  the  church  Shepherd  says:  "No  monarch  of 
the  time  was  deemed  to  be  so  Catholic  as  his  Majesty  of 
Spain,  and  none  enjoyed  in  his  dominions  oversea  so  great 
an  amount  of  ecclesiastical  power.  By  various  papal 
grants,  within  twenty  years  after  the  discovery  of  America, 
the  Spanish  crown  was  given  substantially  complete  juris- 
diction there  over  the  organization  and  activities  of  the 
church.  In  exercise  of  the  'royal  patronage'  (real  patro- 
nato),  it  controlled  appointments  to  benefices  and  other 
holdings,  regulated  the  conduct  of  the  clergy,  and  disposed 
of  ecclesiastical  property  and  revenues." 

"The  Church,  in  fact,  was  the  greatest  instrument  of 
authority  which  the  crown  possessed  in  the  colonies.     Just 


158       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

as  it  had  perpetuated  in  Europe  the  traditions  of  Rome,  so 
in  the  New  World  it  perpetuated  those  of  Spain.  Rather 
than  secular  agencies  of  any  sort,  it  was  the  clergy  who  ad- 
justed the  relationship  between  the  whites  and  the  Indians, 
who  inculcated  loyalty  to  the  Spanish  throne  and  contributed 
in  general  to  the  maintenance  and  extension  of  Spanish  rule. 

"In  order  to  prosecute  the  work  of  the  Church  more  effec- 
tually, the  Inquisition  was  set  up,  in  1569.  Thereafter  con- 
fining its  attention  exclusively  to  the  European  element  in 
the  population,  that  dread  tribunal  punished  heretical 
Spaniards  and  foreigners,  like  sailors,  smugglers  and 
pirates,  who  might  have  the  misfortune  to  fall  into  its 
clutches.  But,  except  for  its  censorship  of  thought,  the  ac- 
tivities of  the  Inquisition  in  America  were  much  less  per- 
nicious than  has  been  commonly  supposed. 

"So  great  were  the  wealth  and  influence  of  the  Church  that 
it  became  customary  to  estimate  the  importance  of  a  given 
locality  by  the  number  of  its  ecclesiastical  buildings." 


wp=m 


^Pl 


J 


8anta  Fe  (50,000),  a  very  old  city  on  the  Parana;  Bahia 

159 


c 


CHAPTER  XII 
CITIES  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 

The  most  important  city  of  South  America  is  Buenos  Aires 
on  the  banks  of  the  La  Plata  river.  It  has  a  population  of 
more  than  1,640,000,  and  next  to  Paris  it  is  the  largest  Latin 
city  in  the  world.  More  than  half  of  its  population  is  of 
foreign  extraction,  the  largest  percentage  of  which  are 
Italians  and  Spaniards.  Therefore,  it  is  Latin  because  of  its 
language,  its  Spanish  origin  and  the  majority  of  its  in- 
habitants. It  possesses  all  the  qualities  of  a  big  capital 
city — magnificent  palaces,  university,  museums,  excellent 
hotels,  beautiful  boulevards,  and  an  unusually  active  and 
extensive  business  district  for  the  reason  that  it  is  one  of 
the  most  important  of  the  world's  ports.  It  is  the  federal 
capital  of  Argentina. 

Its  skyscrapers  are  built  on  the  American  plan.  Its 
tower  of  Giiemes,  with  its  attractive  restaurant  at  270  feet 
from  the  ground,  is  one  of  its  main  structures  and  one  which 
no  doubt  would  attract  favorable  comment  if  duplicated  in 
New  York  City,  The  congestion  of  traffic  in  the  business 
streets  has  compelled  the  construction  of  a  subway. 

Rosario  is  the  second  city  of  importance  in  Argentina,  It 
has  more  than  200,000  inhabitants,  and  as  a  port  it  is  also 
second  in  importance  to  Buenos  Aires. 

Other  important  cities  are:  La  Plata  (120,000),  near 
Buenos  Aires;  Cordoia  (100,000),  a  very  old  city,  which  has 
the  oldest  university  of  the  La  Plata;  Tucumdn  (80,000), 
in  the  center  of  the  republic  in  a  sugar  producing  region; 
Mendoza  (50,000),  often  called  the  "California  of  Argen- 
tina" on  account  of  its  large  production  of  fruits  and  wines; 
8anta  Fe  (50,000),  a  very  old  city  on  the  Parand;  Bahia 

159 


160       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

Blanca  (40,000),  a  seaport  of  great  importance  in  southern 
Argentina. 

In  Uruguay,  at  the  mouth  of  the  La  Plata  river  and  at  a 
distance  of  120  miles  from  Buenos  Aires,  is  situated  the  City 
of  Montevideo  (450,000),  capital  of  the  republic,  noted  for 
its  beautiful  beaches,  mild  climate,  splendid  hotels  with 
special  bathing  accommodations,  wonderful  parks,  its  model 
university,  and  thoroughly  up-to-date  private  schools  and 
colleges.  It  is  a  port  of  exceptional  importance,  not  only 
commercially,  but  due  to  its  geographical  position,  it  is  also 
attractive  from  a  residential  standpoint,  at  the  same  time 
combining  as  it  does  extraordinary  educational  advantages. 

Other  important  cities  in  Uruguay  are:  Salto  and  Pais- 
andu,  two  important  ports  also  on  the  river  Uruguay,  with 
a  population  of  more  than  30,000  each;  Mercedes,  on  the 
river  Negro,  with  25,000  population. 

The  second  largest  city  in  South  America  is  Rio  de 
Janeiro  with  a  population  of  1,000,000.  Its  enviable  loca- 
tion, on  a  magnificent  gulf  surrounded  by  high  mountains, 
entitles  it  to  first  place  among  the  panoramic  cities  of  the 
world.  It  is  a  highly  cultured  city  and  its  importance  as 
one  of  the  leading  centers  in  the  world  of  commerce,  par- 
ticularly in  the  exportation  of  cofifee,  is  well  known. 

The  city  of  Bahia,  or  Sao  Salvador  (300,000),  is  one  of 
Brazil's  principal  ports,  and  so  is  the  port  of  Recife,  or 
Pernambuco  (250,000),  through  which  large  quantities  of 
cofifee  and  sugar  are  exported;  Belen,  or  Para  (170,000), 
large  city  in  northern  Brazil,  is  another  port  of  commercial 
importance. 

All  these  cities  have  been  at  one  time  or  another  infested 
with  yellow  fever,  but  it  has  been  eradicated,  thanks  to  the 
efforts  of  the  health  authorities. 

The  Paulistas,  or  first  Portuguese  settlers  of  Brazil,  estab- 
lished themselves  in  the  state  known  as  San  Paulo,  where 
their  intermarriage  with  the  Indians  produced  an  ener- 
getic and  venturesome  race — the  Mamelucos  of  San  Paulo — 
who  undertook  the  conquest  of  lands  in  the  interior,  in 


CITIES  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA  IGl 

search  of  Indians  whom  they  could  enslave.  They  later  at- 
tacked the  La  Guayra  Missions  on  the  boundary  line  of 
Paraguay,  penetrating  along  the  eastern  side  of  Uruguay, 
this  time  in  search  of  live-stock.  The  Mamelucos  were  the 
highwaymen  of  the  colonial  times  and  the  dreaded  foes  of 
the  Spaniards,  who  were  their  direct  opposite.  The  region 
of  San  Paulo  has  furnished  to  Brazil  this  country's  organiza- 
tion, the  largest  number  of  men  of  note.  The  city  of  San 
Paulo  is  the  second  city  of  importance  in  Brazil,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  400,000.  It  has  one  of  the  world's  famous  uni- 
versities situated  away  from  the  coast,  with  Santos,  the 
world's  largest  coffee  exporter,  as  the  most  convenient  port. 

Santiago  (350,000),  the  capital  of  Chile,  stands  on  the 
bank  of  a  small  river.  It  is  a  famous  center  of  culture,  and 
has  among  its  institutions  of  learning  a  world-known  uni- 
versity and  excellent  preparatory  schools.  Valparaiso, 
with  a  population  of  170,000,  is  the  port  for  Santiago,  and 
the  most  important  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  South  America. 

Other  important  cities  in  Chile:  Iquique  (40,000),  a  port 
of  importance  in  northern  Chile;  Coquimho,  noted  for  its 
rich  copper  mines;  Goncepcion,  Talcahuano,  Valdivia  and 
Puerto  Mont. 

La  Paz  (94,000),  the  capital  of  Bolivia,  is  at  3,100  meters 
elevation.  Potosi  (200,000),  at  4,000  meters  above  sea-level, 
is  remarkable  for  its  silver  mines.  Sucre,  Chuquisaca  or  La 
Plata,  formerly  the  capital,  is  a  city  of  great  historical 
interest. 

Lima  (150,000),  the  capital  of  Peru,  is  only  10  kilometers 
from  the  port  of  Callao  (48,000),  and  is  also  an  interesting 
historical  center,  having  been  the  capital  of  the  Viceroyship 
of  Peru.  Other  important  Peruvian  cities  are:  Ciizco 
(30,000)  and  Arequipa. 

Quito  (50,000),  the  capital  of  Ecuador,  stands  on  a  high 
plateau  in  the  central  part  of  the  republic.  It  is  surrounded 
by  high  volcanic  mountains,  one  of  which  is  Mt.  Cotopaxi. 
Ouayaquil  (51,000),  on  the  gulf  of  the  same  name,  is  the 
leading  seaport, 


162       SOUTH  AMEKICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

Bogota  (125,000),  the  capital  of  Colombia,  is  2,650  meters 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Barranquilla  (50,000),  on  the 
river  Magdalena,  is  the  second  in  importance  and  the  leading 
port  of  Colombia.  Medellin  and  Cartagena  are  also  im- 
portant cities  of  the  republic. 

Caracas  (75,000),  capital  of  Venezuela,  the  home  of  the 
Liberator  Bolivar,  is  just  a  few  kilometers  distance  from  the 
coast  and  from  the  port  of  La  Guayra  (25,000),  the  prin- 
cipal port  of  Venezuela.  Valencia  and  Maracaibo  are  two 
leading  commercial  centers,  and  Ciudad  Bolivar. 


163 


MAPA  de:  las  grandes  vias 


:l  Plata  al  Amaionas 


# 


CHAPTER  XIII 

TRANSPORTATION  RAIL  AND  WATER  ROUTES  OF 
SOUTH  AMERICA 

SUMMARY 

Similar  Configuration  of  Both  Americas — The  Large  Navigable  Rivers  in  the  Interior 
of  the  Continent — Principal  Railroad  Lines — The  Future  Great  Commercial  Route  of 
South  America  Across  the  Center  of  the  Continent — Comparisons  of  Railroad  Lines  of 
the  CountrieB  of  South  America — The  North  American  Railroads. 

Similar  Configuration  of  Both  Americas 
(See  Coiitinental  Relief  Map) 

Both  North  America  and  South  America  are  alike  in 
shape,  both  being  triangular  with  the  widest  angle  on  the 
side  of  the  Atlantic  (Labrador  in  North  America  and  ex- 
treme eastern  Brazil  in  South  America),  and  the  longest 
side,  formed  by  the  Rocky  Mountain  Range  and  the  Andean 
Mountain  Range  respectively.  It  will  also  be  noticed  that 
the  eastern  range  of  mountains  of  the  coast  of  Brazil  corre- 
sponds to  the  Allegheny  mountains  of  North  America,  and 
the  Andes  and  the  Rocky  mountains  correspond  not  only  to 
the  general  formation  but  even  as  to  sub-divisions  as  for 
instance:  the  Sierra  Nevada  corresponds  to  the  Cordillera 
Occidental  of  the  Andean  mountain  system,  while  the  Cordil- 
lera Real,  or  Oriental  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  corresponds  to 
the  main  range  of  the  Rocky  mountain  system. 

The  desert  plateaus  of  the  Salt  Lake  region  correspond  to 
those  in  Bolivia  in  the  region  of  Lake  Titicaca.  The  great 
river  Parand  and  its  tributary  the  Paraguay,  conform  to  the 
Mississippi  and  the  Missouri  rivers  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  and  like  the  latter,  run  from  north  to  south  through 
both  warm  and  temperate  climes,  but  with  the  position  of 
the  climatic  belts  reversed.  In  South  America,  the  lands 
in   the   northern   part   have   a   tropical   and   semi-tropical 

163 


164       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

climate,  while  the  corresponding  latitude  north  of  the 
equator  embraces  the  southern  portion  of  North  America. 

The  Parang  forms  a  delta  at  its  mouth,  but  much  larger 
than  that  formed  by  the  Mississippi.  Conditions  of  naviga- 
tion in  the  Parana  and  the  Paraguay  are  superior  to  those 
of  the  Mississippi,  particularly  the  Paraguay,  which  with- 
out any  special  arrangement  or  contrivance,  is  navigable 
throughout  its  course. 

The  Mississippi-Missouri  stream  is  7,200  kilometers  long. 
The  Parand  itself  measures  4,500  kilometers  in  length.  The 
volume  of  water  which  the  La  Plata  river  (that  of  the 
joint  streams  of  the  Parand  and  Paraguay)  empties  into  the 
ocean  is  42,000  cubic  meters  per  second  of  time  (debit)  in 
comparison  to  17,000  cubic  meters  of  the  Mississippi  stream, 
or  two  and  one-half  times  as  large.  The  Amazon  shows  still 
a  larger  volume — 80,000  to  120,000  cubic  meters  per  second 
of  time. 

The  region  of  British  Columbia  and  California  on  the 
Pacific  coast  of  North  America  is  represented  in  South 
America  by  the  region  in  southern  Chile  with  its  many 
archipelagos  covered  with  immense  virgin  forests  where 
gigantic  trees  for  building  material  may  be  found.  Cali- 
fornia's vineyards  are  duplicated  in  the  Valle  Central 
(Central  Valley),  often  referred  to  as  the  "Chilean  Cali- 
fornia." 

Dr.  Berg,  naturalist  and  former  Director  of  the  Buenos 
Aires  and  Montevideo  Museums,  following  his  return  from 
a  trip  of  exploration  which  he  made  to  the  island  of  Chiloe 
and  others  of  southern  Chile,  stated  that  the  forests  of  Chile 
surpassed  in  grandeur  those  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  where 
he  had  visited  several  times.  The  extreme  southern  part  of 
Chilean  Patagonia  has  equally  as  heavy  rainfall  as  the 
region  of  British  Columbia,  and  its  fishing  season  corre- 
sponds to  that  of  Alaska. 

The  warm  coast  line  of  Peru,  Ecuador  and  Colombia  is  a 
rei)roduction  of  that  of  western  Mexico  with  its  occasional 
affliction  of  yellow  fever  germs. 


RAIL  AND  WATER  ROUTES  165 

The  continent  of  South  America  has  25,000  kilometers  of 
coast-line  divided  thus:  Atlantic  Ocean — 16,000;  Pacific 
Ocean — 9,000,  the  Atlantic  taking  in  two  sides  of  the  tri- 
angle. It  has  not  the  solidity  of  either  Asia  or  Africa  over 
which  it  has  the  advantage,  like  North  America,  of  its  large 
navigable  rivers  through  the  interior  of  the  continent.  As 
to  the  proportional  ratio  between  length  of  coast-line  and 
continental  surface,  it  occupies  third  place  as  follows: 
Europe — 1  kilometer  of  coast-line  to  289  square  kilometers 
of  surface ;  North  America — 1  to  207 ;  South  America — 1  to 
720;  Asia— 1  to  763;  Africa— 1  to  1,420. 

Laege  Rivers  of  South  America 

The  interior  of  South  America  is  drained  by  the  Parand, 
the  Paraguay  and  the  Amazon,  which  has  tributaries  3,000 
kilometers  long,  among  them  the  Madeira,  a  large  navigable 
stream.  Many  of  these  streams  are  navigable  for  long 
distances  as  will  be  noticed  on  the  map  "Means  of  Communi- 
cation" appearing  in  this  book,  Bolivia,  Brazil,  Peru, 
Ecuador  and  Colombia  have  communication  with  the  At- 
lantic Ocean  through  the  Amazon. 

Principal  Railroad  Lines 

There  are  two  interoceanic  railroads:  Buenos  Aires  to 
Valparaiso,  1,200  kilometers  long,  and  another  one  from 
Bahia  Blanca  to  Zapala  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  to  be  ex- 
tended to  the  Pacific  at  Valdivia. 

The  railroad  line  which  connects  Montevideo  and  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  a  distance  of  3,100  kilometers,  runs  along  the  east- 
ern coast  of  Brazil,  and  is  to  be  extended  to  Bahia  and 
Pernambuco,  where  it  will  connect  with  Atlantic  steamers, 
thus  shortening  the  time  of  travel  from  Europe  to  the  La 
Plata.  On  crossing  the  Atlantic  to  Dakar  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa,  a  distance  of  1,200  miles,  it  will  in  time  be 
possible  to  make  connection   with   the  railroad   projected 


166       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

across  the  Desert  of  Sahara  to  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  and 
across  to  Spain. 

A  new  line  has  been  recently  completed  across  Brazil  from 
Corumb^,  a  port  on  the  Paraguay,  eastwardly  to  Rio  de 
Janeiro  (2,200  kms.),  via  San  Paulo  and  Santos.  Thus, 
the  distance  of  fifteen  days  from  Corumbd  via  the  Parana 
and  the  La  Plata  to  the  Atlantic,  has  been  reduced  to  five 
days.  From  Corumbd  this  line  will  cross  the  Chaco  river 
to  Cochabamba  in  Bolivia,  which  has  connections  with 
Pacific  ports.  This  will  be  the  most  important  interoceanic 
railroad  line  in  the  continent. 

Chile  has  a  longitudinal  railroad  extending  from  Port 
Mont  in  the  southern  part,  via  Iquique  to  Tacna,  covering  a 
distance  of  3,541  kilometers,  according  to  the  map  by  Don 
Juan  de  Santa  Cruz,  cartographer.  Ministry  of  Railways 
of  Chile. 

The  Central  Argentino  railroad  extends  from  the  port  of 
Rosario  on  the  Paran<^  to  the  Argentine-Bolivian  frontier 
to  Cordoba,  Tucuman,  Salta  and  Jujuy,  as  far  as  Quiaca, 
which  is  3,000  meters  above  sea-level.  It  will  be  constructed 
across  the  Bolivian  plateau  to  Tupiza  and  Uyuni  (200  kms.), 
over  the  line  that  goes  to  La  Paz,  the  capital  of  Bolivia,  and 
which  starts  from  the  port  of  Antofagasta  in  Chile.  Were 
we  to  follow  the  meridian,  the  distance  would  be  12  degrees 
with  Rosario,  34°  south  latitude  and  Quiaca  in  latitude 
22°  south,  a  distance  equal  to  1,200  kms.,  but  as  the  por- 
tion that  lies  between  Rosario  and  C6rdoba  runs  east  and 
west  for  a  distance  of  400  kms.  or  4  degrees,  and  it  has 
numerous  curves,  its  entire  length  is  more  than  3,000  kilo- 
meters. (See  map  "Means  of  Communication.")  From 
Uyuni  the  line  extends  to  Lake  Titicaca  at  Guaqui,  where 
connection  with  steamers  is  made,  crossing  the  lake  (4,000 
m.  elevation)  to  Puno  on  the  opposite  side,  the  starting 
point  of  the  railroad  to  Cuzco,  the  famous  city  of  the  Incas. 
There  is  no  railroad  connection  from  Cuzco  to  Huancayo, 
the  terminal  point  of  the  line  from  the  port  of  Callao,  only 
650  kilometers.     In  fact  there  are  only  850  kilometers  that 


RAIL  AND  WATER  ROUTES  167 

lack  railroad  communication  from  Buenos  Aires  on  the 
Atlantic  to  Callao  on  the  Pacific,  and  to  Lima,  the  capital 
of  Peru. 

The  railroads  of  Bolivia  connect  with  three  Pacific  ports 
— Antofagasta,  Arica  and  Mollendo.  The  Antofagasta  line 
crosses  the  Andes  at  a  height  of  4,788  meters  at  the  station 
called  Puuto  Alto.  The  Bolivian  Central  railroad,  which 
runs  across  the  plateau  as  far  as  Lake  Titicaca,  has  branches 
to  Potosi,  La  Paz  and  Cochabamba  and  a  short  branch  is  to 
be  constructed  to  extend  to  port  Chimore  over  the  Mamore,  a 
very  important  navigable  stream  connecting  with  the 
Madeira,  a  tributary  of  the  Amazon. 

The  cataracts  of  the  Madeira  (Saltos  Girau)  impede  the 
navigation  of  this  large  stream  and  so  it  became  necessary 
to  construct  the  railroad  from  Guajaramirin  to  Porto  Velho 
(200  kms.).  The  government  of  Brazil  constructed  this  line 
as  compensation  for  the  territory  of  Acre,  which  Bolivia 
ceded  to  Brazil,  and  which  is  valuable  for  its  plentiful 
rubber  production. 

Bolivia  plans  the  construction  of  another  railroad  line 
from  Riberalta,  a  port  on  the  Beni  river,  which  is  navigable 
from  Port  Pando  near  the  city  of  La  Paz,  to  the  upper 
terminus  of  the  railroad  to  the  Madeira,  at  a  point  on  the 
Beni  river  where  navigation  is  obstructed.  Bolivia  has 
better  prospects  in  securing  an  outlet  for  its  vegetable 
products  through  the  La  Plata  where  freight  rates  are  lower, 
besides  having  the  opportunity  to  dispose  of  a  large  portion 
of  the  products  which  differ  from  those  of  the  La  Plata 
region.  Many  of  its  minerals  would  also  find  there  a  ready 
market,  but  the  bulk  of  minerals  should  be  exported  to 
Europe  and  North  America.  Port  Suarez,  Bolivia,  on  the 
affluent  Paraguay  river,  is  situated  opposite  the  Brazilian 
port  of  Corumb^,  which  has  direct  regular  steamer  communi- 
cation with  Montevideo  and  Buenos  Aires,  and  a  few  steamers 
have  occasional  service  from  Port  Suarez  to  La  Plata  ports. 

A  railroad  is  planned  to  connect  Port  Suarez  with  Cocha- 
bamba in  central  Bolivia,  in  connection  with  the  railroad 


168       SOUTH  AMEKICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

running  through  the  plateau,  thus  establishing  rapid  com- 
munication with  the  La  Plata  region. 

Peru  has,  besides  the  railroad  from  Mollendo  to  Arequipa, 
Puno  and  Cuzco,  another  one  from  Callao,  its  most  important 
port,  to  Lima,  Oroya  and  Pasco,  the  last  two  situated  in  the 
most  productive  mineral  region  of  Peru. 

This  is  the  highest  railroad  in  the  world,  its  highest  point 
being  Galera,  near  Oroya,  4,814  meters  elevation  (approx. 
16,000  ft. ;  the  highest  peak  in  Europe  is  Mt.  Blanco  at  4,810 
m.  elev.),  and,  in  the  short  distance  traversed,  it  runs 
through  three  climatic  belts — hot  on  the  coast,  temperate  on 
the  plateau,  and  very  cold  on  the  lofty  summits  over  4,000 
meters  above  sea-level.  The  line  of  perpetual  snow  in  this 
region  is  at  5,500  meters  in  the  Cordillera  Occidental  and  at 
a  lower  altitude  on  the  Oriental.  On  the  Alps,  the  line  of 
perpetual  snow  in  Switzerland  is  at  2,800  meters,  reason 
for  the  Jungfrau  railroad  operating  at  Interlaken  only 
during  the  summer,  the  last  station  being  at  3,100  meters 
elevation. 

In  order  to  complete  the  Pan-American  railroad  it  will 
be  necessary  to  construct  the  lines  north  of  Pasco  in  latitude 
10°  south,  to  Guayaquil,  which  has  railroad  connection  with 
Quito  just  below  the  equator,  thence  to  Panama  in  latitude 
9°  north  across  Colombia,  a  total  distance  of  19  degrees  or 
1,900  kms.  in  a  straight  line.  In  all,  there  are  more  than 
3,000  kilometers  over  which  to  construct  a  railroad  that 
will  extend  from  Panama  to  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires.  La 
Paz,  the  capital  of  Bolivia,  would  be  the  central  point  of  the 
Pan-South  American  railroad,  the  distance  from  La  Paz  to 
other  important  centers,  in  kilometers  being:  Lima,  1,800; 
Rio  Janeiro  via  Port  Suarez,  3,000;  Asuncion,  capital  of 
Paraguay,  along  the  Pilcomayo,  1,800 ;  Montevideo  via  Salto 
and  Asuncion,  3,300;  Buenos  Aires  via  the  Quiaca  and 
Central  Argentina  railroad,  2,640;  Santiago,  Chile,  2,600. 

The  construction  of  the  Pan-American  South  American 
railroad  will  not  prove  as  diflScult  a  task  as  the  railroad 
which  is  being  built  by  the  English  through  Africa,  and 


RAIL  AND  WATER  ROUTES  169 

which  will  connect  Cairo  with  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  at  the 
southernmost  extremity  of  the  African  continent.  This 
railroad  would  have  no  doubt  been  completed  by  this  time 
had  not  the  world-war  interrupted  its  construction. 

The  distance  to  be  covered  across  continental  Africa  from 
Cairo  to  the  Cape  is  10,000  kms.,  with  the  following  connect- 
ing lines:  Cape  Town  to  Elisabethville  near  Lake  Tanganyika 
(5,000  kms.),  already  built;  Elisabethville  to  Lake  Tangan- 
yika (500  kms.),  under  project;  Lake  Tanganyika  to  Lake 
Albert  (700  kms.),  under  project  (distance  across  Lake 
Tanganyika  750  kms.)  ;  Khartum  to  Cairo  (2,000  kms.), 
already  built;  Khartum  to  Lake  Albert  (1,800  kms.),  under 
project.  Total  10,000  kms. ;  3,000  kms.  of  this  distance  are 
yet  without  a  railroad  necessary  to  connect  both  the  north- 
ern and  southern  extremes  of  Africa,  with  steamer  connec- 
tion to  cross  Lake  Tanganyika  (750),  as  is  done  in  making 
the  connection  at  Lake  Titicaca  (275). 

We  trust  that  the  capital  of  enterprising  Yankees  will  be 
a  contributing  factor  in  the  completion  of  what  both 
Americas  have  so  long  desired — the  Pan-American  Railroad 
— by  '  building  it  over  the  remaining  3,000  kilometers  in 
South  American  territory  and  joining  it  to  the  lines  which 
connect  New  York  with  Mexico  and  ultimately  with  the 
countries  of  Central  America. 

The  Future  Great  Commercial  Route  op  South  America 

From  the  La  Plata  to  Panamd  route — the  Parand,  the  Paraguay,  the  Tapajos,  the 
Amazon,  the  Rio  Negro  to  Panam^. 

The  Pan-American  railroad,  which  is  planned  to  cross  the 
Andean  region  and  into  the  Argentine  republic,  is  badly 
needed  in  order  to  facilitate  the  commercial  relations  be- 
tween the  countries  of  the  Andes,  as  well  as  to  more  closely 
bind  their  ties  of  friendship,  but  it  will  not  be  the  best  com- 
mercial route  for  the  interchange  of  business  relations  be- 
tween the  region  of  La  Plata  and  that  of  the  Amazon  and 
the  United  States  of  America. 

The  railroad  from  Buenos  Aires  to  Lake  Titicaca  can 


170       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

not  possibly  compete  in  the  matter  of  freight  rates  with  the 
river  transportation  of  the  ParanA  and  the  Paraguay  to 
Port  Suarez  and  CorumM  in  latitude  19°  south,  and  to 
Cuyaba  in  Brazil,  latitude  16°  south,  directly  east  of  Lake 
Titicaca,  which  is  the  route  used  by  the  Lloyd  Brasiliero 
Steamship  Line.  From  Cuyaba,  northwardly,  the  river  of 
the  same  name  can  be  navigated  as  far  as  the  land  that 
separates  it  from  the  source  of  the  Arinos,  a  tributary  of  the 
Tapajos  which  finds  its  way  into  the  Amazon.  It  is  at  this 
point,  between  the  source  of  the  Cuyabd  and  the  Arinos,  that 
the  canal  uniting  the  La  Plata  and  the  Amazon  should  be 
built,  and  which,  according  to  Captain  Bossi,  who  explored 
the  region,  will  not  be  a  diflQcult  task  to  accomplish.  The 
Tapajos  river  is  obstructed  for  navigation  by  cataracts  (see 
corresponding  map),  which  can  be  avoided  by  building  a 
lateral  canal,  finally  connecting  with  the  Amazon  westwardly 
to  Rio  Negro  to  the  frontiers  of  Colombia  and  Venezuela, 
from  which  place  a  railroad  could  be  constructed  across 
Colombia  towards  Bogota  and  Panamd  as  the  terminal 
points.  Not  more  than  1,200  kilometers  of  railroad  would 
have  to  be  built  across  the  republic  of  Colombia,  which  to- 
gether with  two  canals  on  the  Tapajos  river  would  establish 
an  economical  commercial  route  from  the  La  Plata  to  the 
Panama  Canal.  The  reader  will  observe  by  the  map  that 
the  route  Parand-Tapajos  follows  the  Greenwich  meridian 
of  longitude  58°  west,  starting  from  latitude  34°  south,  to 
very  near  the  equator,  or  a  distance  of  a  little  over  3,G00 
kilometers  north  and  south.  Therefore,  the  distance  of  G,000 
kilometers  from  Buenos  Aires  to  Panama  is  divided  as 
follows : 

Buenos  Aires  to  the  Amazon 3,600 

Point  of  entry,  Amazon  to  Rio  Negro 1,200 

Raih-oad,  Rio  Negro  to  Panama 1,200 

It  is  our  opinion  that  this  enterprise  would  receive  the  ap- 
probation of  Argentina,  Colombia  and  Brazil.  There  is  at 
present  a  steamship  line  connecting  Paisandu,  Buenos 
Aires  and  Montevideo  with  Manaos  on  the  Amazon  at  the 


RAIL  AND  WATER  ROUTES  171 

mouth  of  Rio  Negro  by  a  roundabout  way  via  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Amazon,  which  is  equal  to  about  double  the  dis- 
tance. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  this  proposed  great,  commercial 
route  of  South  America  (marked  in  blue  on  the  map), 
crosses  lands  in  both  the  torrid  and  temperate  zones,  which 
are  not  accessible  by  the  routes  now  available.  The  La 
Plata  would  ship  wheat,  flour,  meat  and  other  products  and 
would  in  turn  receive  lumber  of  all  kinds,  mate,  tobacco, 
tapioca,  rubber,  etc.  In  comparing  this  route  with  that  of 
the  interior  of  Africa,  which  the  English  are  about  to  com- 
plete, we  find  that  the  latter  passes  through  less  fertile  soil, 
not  as  rich  in  either  animal  or  vegetable  life,  besides,  the 
former  is  only  half  as  long  and  its  construction  will  be  far 
more  economical.  The  length  of  the  African  route  is  10,000 
kms. ;  the  South  American,  6,000  kms. 

The  distance  over  desert  land,  where  the  railroad  of  the 
central  African  route  is  yet  to  be  constructed,  is  3,000  kilo- 
meters, while  there  are  only  1,200  kilometers  of  desert  land 
and  sparsely  settled  district  over  which  the  railroad  through 
Colombia  would  have  to  be  built. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  4,800  kms.  of  the  G,000  of  the  great 
South  American  route,  are  through  large  streams  where  no 
locks  are  needed,  only  a  few  small  canals. 

The  central  railroad  of  Colombia  will  cross  the  Guaviare 
and  Meta,  navigable  tributaries  of  the  Orinoco,  thereby 
establishing  communication  with  the  Atlantic,  Before  the 
Panama  Canal  was  constructed,  there  was  a  plan  to  build 
a  canal  connecting  the  Rio  Negro  and  the  Orinoco,  a  difficult 
and  expensive  undertaking  according  to  explorations  made 
by  Michelena  under  instructions  by  the  Venezuelan  govern- 
ment. From  now  on,  the  Panama  route  will  be  the  logical 
route  for  the  western  coasts  of  both  Americas,  for  the  com- 
mercial intercourse  between  Australia  and  Europe  and  for 
the  principal  north  Atlantic  ports  dealing  with  the  Pacific. 
Considering  this  fact,  the  direction  of  the  Central  Colom- 
bian© railroad  might  be  changed  to  start  from  the  ports  of 


172       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

Tabatinga  or  Iquitos,  should  it  prove  more  economical  or 
convenient  to  operate. 

SOUTH  AMERICAN  RAILROADS 
Yeah  1919 

Area  Length  of  Per  Each 

Square  Railroads —  100  Square 

Kilometers  Kilometers  Kilometers 

Brazil 8,550,000  23,000  270meter3 

Argentine 2,950,000  33,000  1,120 

Peru 1,769,000  2,780  150 

Bolivia 1,470,000  1,800  120 

Colombia 1,300,000  1,000  77 

Venezuela 1,020,000  925  89 

Chile 757,000  8,200  1,083 

Ecuador 307,000  561  180 

Paraguay 253,000  250  90 

Uruguay 187,000  2,600  1,400 

NORTH  AMERICAN  RAILROADS 
Year  1919 

•  United  States 9,386,000  410,000  4,300 

Canada  (Dominion  of) 9,659,000  44,000  450 

Mejdco 1,987,000  25,000  1,200 

The  railroad  mileage  of  the  leading  South  American  coun- 
tries, including  the  United  States  of  America  for  purposes 
of  comparison,  is  as  follows,  in  consecutive  order  of  greatest 
mileage:  United  States,  Argentina,  Brazil,  Chile,  etc.,  but 
taking  in  consideration  the  area  of  each  country  and  the 
proportion  of  kilometers  of  railroad  to  square  kilometers  of 
surface,  they  rank  as  follows:  United  States,  Republica 
Oriental  del  Uruguay,  Argentina,  Chile,  Brazil,  etc. 

The  railroads  of  South  America  are  private  property,  as 
in  the  United  States,  England  and  Canada,  and  not  govern- 
ment property,  as  in  the  case  in  Germany,  where  the  govern- 
ment owns  90  per  cent  of  the  stock,  in  Austria  82  per  cent, 
in  Russia  77  per  cent,  in  Italy  73  per  cent,  and  in  France  17 
per  cent. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  MEAT -PRODUCING  REGION  OF  SOUTH 
AMERICA— THE  LA  PLATA  VALLEY 

SUMMARY 

Live  Stock  Inventory — Live  Stock  Killed  in  Uruguay  and  Argentina — Wool  Production 
of  the  La  Plata. 

The  La  Plata  Valley  comprises  the  republics  of  Argentina, 
Uruguay  and  Paraguay,  the  Brazilian  provinces  of  the 
Matto  Grosso  region  (which  is  crossed  by  the  Paraguay,  a 
tributary  of  the  Panama  which,  together  with  the  Uruguay, 
forms  the  great  estuary  of  the  improperly  named  "Rio  de  la 
Plata"),  and  the  province  of  Rio  Grande  del  Sur,  drained  by 
the  Uruguay  and  its  tributaries. 

Inventory  of  Liue  Stock,  Including  Cattle  and  Sheep  in  Argentina,  Urugvay, 
Paraguay  and  Brazil,  in  1919 

Number  Number     Head  of         Head  of 

per  Sq.  Kilo-  per  Sq.  Kilo-     Cattle         Sheep 

Cattle  meter  Sheep  meter      per  Inhab.  per  Inhab. 

Uruguay 8,000,000  48  20,000,000     112  5.3  13 

Argentina 31,000,000  11  81,000,000      27  3.8  10 

Brazil 30,000,000  4       1.2 

Paraguay 5,000,000  20  500,000        2  5.  2 

The  foregoing  figures  plainly  show  that  the  republics  of 
Uruguay'  and  Argentina  are  the  two  leading  live-stock  coun- 
tries of  South  America,  in  the  production  of  both  cattle  and 
sheep.  The  live  stocli  of  Paraguay  and  Brazil  is  not  as 
heavy  in  weight,  and  the  meat  is  not  as  high  a  grade  as  that 
of  the  other  two,  and  consequently  sells  at  a  lower  price. 
This  is  due  principally  to  the  fact  that  the  live  stock  of  the 
La  Plata  consists  almost  exclusively  of  the  Durham  and 
Hereford  breeds  of  English  stock.  These  breeds  can  not  be 
successfully  raised  in  Brazilian  and  Paraguayan  territory 
on  account  of  the  excessively  warm  climate,  the  many  differ- 
ent varieties  of  insects  that  infest  certain  districts,  and  the 
small  nutritive  value  of  its  grasses,  causing  these  breeds  to 

173 


174       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

gradually  depreciate,  and  very  often  starve.  Brazil  has 
successfully  tried  the  acclimation  of  the  zebu  of  India,  but 
its  meat  is  somewhat  tough  and  not  as  palatable  as  that  of 
the  native  breeds,  which,  though  not  to  be  compared  with  the 
stock  imported  from  England,  is  fairly  satisfactory.  The 
meat  value  of  the  native  cattle  is  only  about  half  of  that  of 
the  English  breeds  introduced,  besides  not  attaining  full 
growth  until  the  sixth  or  eighth  year,  while  the  English 
cattle  have  a  high  grade  market  value  at  three  or  four  years 
of  age.  . 

The  belt  of  the  La  Plata  region,  which  is  better  adapted  to 
the  raising  of  live  stock,  lies  between  the  parallels  30°  to  40° 
south  latitude,  which  embraces  the  republic  of  Uruguay 
lying  between  parallels  30°  and  35°,  a  large  portion  of 
Argentina  which  lies  between  the  rivers  Paran.'i  and  Uru- 
guay, the  provinces  of  Buenos  Aires  and  Cordoba,  and  the 
Pampa  district.  The  leading  live-stock  states  in  Brazil  are 
the  following: 

Head 

Rio  Grande  del  Sur 6,500,000 

Minas  Geraes 6,300,000 

Bahia 2,800,000 

Matto  Grosao 2,700,000 

Goyaz 1,900,000 

San  Paulo 1,700,000 

The  State  of  Rio  Grande,  which  heads  the  list,  adjoins 
the  republic  of  Uruguay  on  the  north,  and  has  a  milder 
climate  than  central  or  northern  Brazil.  The  other  states 
are  in  the  central  part  of  the  republic,  where  it  is  exceed- 
ingly warm  and  consequently  not  at  all  suitable  for  the 
breeding  of  English  stock. 

In  numbers,  the  United  States  of  America  shows  a  larger 
production  of  live  stock  than  Argentina,  but  their  produc- 
tion of  60,000,000  head  is  not  sufficient  for  their  110,000,000 
inhabitants,  and  therefore  the  necessity  of  importing  large 
quantities  of  meat  from  the  La  Plata  region.  Uruguay  is 
the  largest  producer  and  exporter  in  comparison  to  the 
number  of  inhabitants,   with   5.3  head   of   cattle   and   13 


THE  MEAT-PRODUCING  REGION  175 

head  of  sheep  for  each  inhabitant ;  Argentina  is  second,  with 
3.8  and  10  per  inhabitant,  respectively.  The  proportion 
per  square  kilometer:  Uruguay,  48  head  of  cattle  and  112 
head  of  sheep ;  Argentina,  11  and  27  respectively. 

The  price  for  a  good  steer  in  La  Plata  varies  from  80  to 
100  pesos,  or  at  the  rate  of  about  $0.15  to  |0.20  per  kilo. 
The  average  steer  weighs  from  600  to  700  kilos.  In  Matto 
Grosso  and  in  Paraguay,  the  price  of  steers  varies  from  30 
to  40  dollars.  The  best  Brazilian  cattle  are  found  in  the 
State  of  Rio  Grande,  but  not  as  high  a  grade  as  that  of  the 
La  Plata.  The  provincial  governments  of  San  Paulo  and 
Rio  Grande  are  taking  steps  to  improve  the  tarious  breeds. 

The  Republic  of  Argentina  has  an  intensive  live-stock  in- 
dustry and  cultivates  large  alfalfa  fields  for  the  increase  of 
the  market  value  of  its  cattle  and  sheep,  while  the  Republic 
of  Uruguay,  which  nature  has  favored  with  specially  attrac- 
tive climatic  conditions,  heavier  rainfall  and  milder  summer 
weather,  has  left  it  entirely  to  nature  to  supply  the  food  for 
its  vast  herds,  but  should  Uruguay  follow  other  methods,  its 
production  of  live  stock  could  be  doubled  and  perhaps  quad- 
rupled, inasmuch  as  its  numerous  river-streams  could  be 
economically  and  profitably  utilized  in  the  irrigation  of 
lands,  as  is  being  done  by  Argentina  on  the  Rio  Negro, 
Neuquen,  Meudoza,  San  Juan,  etc. 

Thus,  the  La  Plata  districts  could  increase  their  live-stock 
production  with  the  improvement  of  the  breeds  and  the 
fields  and  the  cultivation  of  forage.  Brazil  could  likewise 
increase  its  production,  but  the  climate  of  the  plains  of 
Matto  Grosso  and  Goyaz,  which  have  the  best  prairie  land, 
is  too  severe  for  the  development  of  the  English  breeds. 
The  states  of  San  Paulo  and  Minas  can  better  afford  to  try 
the  improvement  of  their  live  stock  in  a  general  way,  for 
though  in  the  same  latitude  as  the  other  central  states,  the 
climate  of  their  high  plateaus  is  much  cooler  and  healthier 
in  everj-^  respect. 

Uruguay  exported  in  1916  638,000  head  of  cattle  which 
were  prepared  in  various  packing  houses  and  factories,  in- 


176       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

eluding  that  of  Liebig  of  Fray  Bentos;  846,000  were  pre- 
pared iu  1917,  273,000  of  which  came  through  the  plant  of  a 
North  American  concern.  The  Liebig  factory,  which  makes  a 
specialty  of  extract  of  beef,  prepared  101,000.  The  "sala- 
deros"  jjrepared  jerked-beef  which  is  cut  in  pieces  in  the  form 
of  blankets,  for  exportation  to  Cuba  and  Brazil.  The  num- 
ber and  the  value  of  the  beef  prepared  at  the  various  cold 
storage  plants,  packing  houses  and  factories  for  the  year 
1916  was  638,000  bovines  and  for  1917  816,000,  with  a  price 
of  126,636,000  and  |35,329,000  respectively. 

The  total  production  in  Uruguay,  including  local  consump- 
tion, was  797,000  bovines  in  1916,  and  863,000  in  1917.  The 
Liebig  factories  prepare  the  canned  beef,  beef  extract  and 
tongue,  and  the  cold  storage  plants  also  prepare  these  same 
products  with  exception  of  the  beef  extract. 

Sheep  prepared  in  1916 :  192,000.  In  1918  the  Swift  plant 
exported  hog  products  such  as  ham,  bacon,  sausages,  fats, 
etc.  The  pig-breeding  industry  promises  to  have  a  regular 
and  rapid  growth. 

An  increase  in  the  preparation  of  meats  in  the  cold-storage 
plants  is  noticeable,  and  a  diminution  in  the  preparation  of 
jerked  or  dried  beef.  During  the  five  years  from  1891  to 
1895  inclusive,  the  packing  houses  of  Uruguay,  Argentina 
and  Rio  Grande  in  Brazil,  prepared  jerked  beef  from 
9,891,000  animals  or  an  average  of  about  1,978,000  per  year. 
The  five  years  from  1911  to  1915  inclusive,  the  number  de- 
creased to  6,496,000,  or  a  yearly  average  of  1,299,000.  This 
reduction  may  be  attributed  to  the  establishment  of  the 
large  cold  storage  plant  of  Swift  at  Montevideo  and  others 
at  Rio  Grande,  which  had  none  before.  The  suet  exported  in 
1916  from  Uruguay,  35,000  tons. 

Argentina  exported  in  1917,  71,000  bovines  and  355,000 
tons  of  frozen  beef,  38,000  tons  cold-storage  beef,  and  39,000 
frozen  mutton — a  total  of  432,000  tons  and  71,000  bovines. 

The  exportation  of  meats  has  constantly  increased  since 
1910,  and  the  prices  have  also  increased  in  proportion  to  the 
demand.     In   Montevideo   and   Buenos  Aires,  high   grade 


THE  MEAT-PKODUOING  REGION  177 

cattle  sold  for  as  much  as  fO.20  per  kilo,  bringing  the  price 
of  the  average  steer  weighing  600  kilos,  to  |120  American 
gold.  Salt  meats  and  jerked-beef  will  gradually  disappear 
from  the  Argentine  and  the  Uruguayan  market.  Uruguay 
exported  in  1917  only  7,G00  tons  valued  at  |2,000,000. 

Price  of  Livestock  ai  the  Ldniers  Market  in  Buenos  Aires  on  the  18th  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1919 
Value  of  the  Argentine  peso  at  the  prevailing  rate  of  exchange,  $0.45 

Oxen  for  consumption  and  packing-house  purposes $150  to  231 

High  grade  steers 280 

Steers  for  packing-house  purposes 219  to  230 

Medium  size  steers 189  to  204 

Medium  fattened  steers 167  to  186 

Small  steers  for  consumption 44  to  146 

Cows 72  to  210 

Heifers 35  to  126 

Calves 25  to  108 

The  Matanza  Market  {Buenos  Aires)  had  prices  as  follows 

Geldings  for  cold  storage $13  to  21 

Geldings  for  slaughter  house 21  to  25 

Sheep  for  cold  storage 14  to  24 

Lamb 4  to   9 

Lamb  for  cold  storage 10  to  12 

Montevideo  market  prices  on  the  same  day 
Exchange,  American  $1.00  value;  Uruguay,  $0.82 

For  cold  storage  and  factories —  Per  kilo 

On  the  hoof $0.11    to  $0.14 

Per  kilo 
Cows $0,092  to  $0,120 

For  local  consumption: 

Oxen $0,118  to  $0,126 

Steers 0.115  to    0.135 

Cows 0.103  to   0.133 

High  grade  cows 0.140 

Calves 0.90    to   0.150 

Value  of  the  Uruguayan  gold  dollar — on  the  date  last 
above  mentioned — 12.695  in  Argentine  currency;  four  Uru- 
guayan gold  dollars  per  £. 

Live  stock  constitutes  the  principal  and  almost  exclusive 
exportation  of  the  Republica  Oriental  del  Uruguay.  In 
1916,  the  value  of  agricultural  products  exported  amounted 
to  one  and  a  half  million  dollars,  against  seventy-one  million 
dollars'  worth  of  live  stock.  There  has  been  a  noticeable 
annual  increase  since  1890,  when  the  live  stock  exported 


178       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

showed  a  value  of  |26,000,000,  |37,000,000  in  1900, 
171,000,000  in  1916,  and  more  than  |100,000,000  in  1917.  This 
rapid  increase  does  not  necessarily  correspond  to  the  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  head,  but  to  the  higher  prices  paid 
for  correspondingly  higher  grade  stock,  the  weight  of  which 
has  also  increased  materially  with  the  improvement  of  the 
breeds  by  the  introduction  of  the  Durhams  and  Herefords. 
In  order  that  the  reader  may  form  an  idea  of  the  difference 
in  value  between  the  native  and  the  mestizo  cattle  or  the 
native  cattle  improved  vdth  the  English  breeds,  we  give  the 
following  figures  as  per  data  of  the  Argentine  Rural  Board 
for  the  Buenos  Aires  market  for  the  month  of  December, 
1918,  in  Argentine  money: 

Mestizo  steers 220,  200,  170  pesos 

Native  steers 140,  110  " 

Mestizo  cows 160,  115  " 

Native  cows 135,    75  " 

The  sheep  production  has  decreased  considerably  in  Uru- 
guay within  the  last  ten  years,  for  though  there  was  a  total 
of  28,000,000  head  in  1908,  there  are  at  present  only 
20,000,000,  with  a  slight  increase  in  1918  and  1919  over  the 
few  years  preceding.  The  Uruguayan  wool  sells  at  a  higher 
price  than  that  of  Argentina,  because  it  is  much  cleaner. 

The  total  exportation  of  meat  of  all  kinds  from  Uruguay 
during  the  year  1916,  was  120,000  tonSy  classified  as  follows: 

On  a  basis  of  1,000  kilos  to  a  ton,  and  four  Uruguayan 
gold  dollars  per  pound  sterling,  on  February  15,  1919,  at 
the  following  rate  of  exchange — Change  at  par — 51 1/16 
pence;  1  Uruguayan  dollar==:|1.035  American,  or  |1.072 
Argentineans  Francs  36  cents  (5.36  Francs). 

1916 

Frozen  beef 63,000  tons  $15,189,000  Uruguayan 

Cold  storage  beef 8,000  "  2,291,000 

Canned  beef 20,000  "  5,800,000 

Beef  extract 210  "  504,000 

Frozen  mutton 3,700  "  843,000 

Jerked  beef 4,100  "  1,045,000 


120,000  "       Total,  $25,682,00  " 


THE  MEAT-PRODUCING  REGION  179 

In  1917,  the  exportation  of  meats  amounted  to  125,000 
tons  and  74,000  live  bo  vines. 

The  decrease  in  sheep  production  is  plainly  shown  by  the 

figures   below,    which    represent    the   wool   exported    from 

Uruguay : 

Kilos 

Annual  average  during  the  five  years  from  1906  to  1910 48,898,000 

Annual  average  during  the  five  years  from  1911  to  1915 58,556,000 

1914 44,587,000 

1915 37,904,000 

1916 30,602,000 

1917 39,627,000 

1918 45,000,000 

Wool  exported  by  Argentina  during  1917 127,000,000 

According  to  data  published  in  the  Argentina  Statistical 
Bureau,  the  wool  exported  from  Argentina  in  1917 
amounted  to  127,000  tons,  which  figures  do  not  correspond 
to  the  81,000,000  head  of  sheep  as  shown  by  the  Argentine 
statistics.  Figuring  the  weight  in  kilos  to  correspond  to  the 
weight  of  the  Uruguayan  sheep,  the  Argentine  sheep  should 
not  have  numbered  more  than  60,000,000. 

Live  Stock  Sold  in  the  North  Montevideo  Market  in  1916  and  1917 

Bovines  Sheep 

Con-        Cold  Con-  Cold 

sumption   Storage         Total        sumption       Storage 

1916 219,165      419,340      638,505  51,000       192,000 

1917 182,148      664,432      846,580         158,778      Nothing 

The  quantity  of  meat  consumed  by  the  city  of  Montevideo, 

was  32,000,000  kilos  in  1915  and  34,000,000  in  1916.     Hides 

exported  through  the  port  of  Montevideo  in  1916  and  1917, 

as  follows : 

Salted         Dried  Salted  Young  Ox  Dried  Young  Ox  Grand 

Bovines  Bovines     and  Heifers        and  Heifers  Total 

1916 675,699  920,825  205,625  26,759  1,828,908 

1917 920,825  809,110  250,379  60,304  2,040,618 

In  1917,  5,349,000  kilos  of  fat,  and  10,526,000  kilos  of 
tallow  were  exported:  dried  blood,  2,000,000  kilos;  gut, 
453,000  kilos. 

Total  value  of  exports  from  Uruguay  for  1910,  |73,000,000 ; 


180       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

for  1917,  1103,000,000,  of  which  97  per  cent  represents  live- 
stock products. 

Price  of  Meat  in  Montevideo 
Price  per  kilo 
1913  1916 

Minimum  Maximum  Minimum  Maximum 

Roast $0.18  $0.24  $0.16  $0.40 

Pulp 0.17  .        0.16  0.32 

Loin 0.27  0.24  0.40 

Livestock  Killed  in  Slaughter-house  in  the  Country  Districts  of  Uruguay  in 

1916 

Bovines 98,000 

Sheep 80,000 

The  above  figures  do  not  include  the  live  stock  which  is 
exempt  from  taxation,  as  it  is  not  destined  for  consumption 
by  the  people  living  in  the  farming  districts,  but  for  con- 
sumption in  the  towns  and  cities. 

The  live-stock  industry  of  the  Republica  Oriental  is 
favored,  as  we  have  already  stated,  by  its  exceptionally  mild 
climate.  Snow  falls  on  an  average  of  about  every  fifty 
years.  There  are  several  old  residents  of  that  region  who 
had  never  seen  snow  until  1918,  when  it  covered  nearly  the 
whole  republic.  Therefore,  no  shelter  is  needed  for  the  live 
stock.  That  still  bigger  results  are  not  shown,  may  be  at- 
tributed to  the  fact  that  the  live-stock  raisers  do  not  cultivate 
forage  for  consumption  during  the  summer  season,  which  is 
the  critical  period,  inasmuch  as  if  there  is  an  insufficiency  of 
rainfall  there  is  naturally  a  scarcity  of  grasses,  which  causes 
the  stock  to  starve  in  the  congested  districts.  So  in  order 
to  prevent  this,  the  live-stock  raisers  arranged  to  graze  no 
stock  on  a  certain  part  of  their  pastures,  so  that  they  may 
utilize  it  in  summer  should  the  occasion  require  it,  but  which 
will  not  be  needed  in  case  of  sufficient  rainfall.  It  means 
that  very  valuable  ground  is  going  to  waste,  besides  check- 
ing what  would  undoubtedly  be  a  much  larger  increase  in 
the  production.  The  author  happens  to  know  of  a  big  ranch 
owner  who  lost  30,000  head  of  cattle  just  for  neglecting  to 
plant  forage,  which  would  have  saved  his  stock. 


THE  MEAT-PRODUCING  REGION  181 

Argentina  has  many  extensive  prairies  devoted  to  the 
cultivation  of  alfalfa  hay  where  the  livestock  may  roam  at 
will.  This  would  be  impos.sible  in  Uruguay,  but  alfalfa  hay 
could  be  cultivated,  and  in  due  time  mowed,  dried  and 
stacked.  The  alfalfa  fields  of  Argentina  are  at  quite  a 
distance  from  the  ports,  in  some  cases  a  distance  of  about 
250  miles,  which  means  of  course  considerable  expense  in 
the  transfer  of  either  live  stock  or  forage  to  the  point  of  ship- 
ment. In  Uruguay  the  ports  are  a  little  distance  from  the 
fields. 

The  Uruguayan  alfalfa  differs  from  that  of  Argentina,  in 
that  the  stalk  of  the  former  is  shorter  and  more  slender  but 
has  more  leaves,  which  makes  it  more  valuable  for  feeding 
purposes,  the  leaves  being  the  nutritious  part  of  the  forage. 
Its  productive  powers  last  for  five  years  and  in  some  cases 
longer,  which  is  suflScient  time  for  it  to  yield  good  returns  to 
the  land  owner.  The  alfalfa  which  is  cultivated  in  Brie, 
France,  and  in  all  the  Champagne  region,  lasts  three  years. 
The  soil  of  Uruguay  has  all  the  elements  necessary  for  the 
cultivation  of  alfalfa,  such  as  potassium,  lime  and  phos- 
phorus, and  as  the  air  supplies  the  nitrogen  it  does  not 
need  nitrates  like  other  plants.  As  a  fertilizer,  use  may  be 
made  of  the  phosphate  obtained  from  the  bones  to  be  had 
from  the  "saladeros"  at  ten  dollars  per  ton  of  1,000  kilos, 
which,  when  burnt  and  crushed,  is  sufficient  for  one  hectare 
of  surface  (2,471  acres).  Its  reaction  is  the  same  as  in  the 
extraction  of  phosphorus,  the  phosphoric  acid  being  slowly 
replaced  by  carbonic  acid  and  forms  carbonate  of  lime  and 
frees  the  phosphoric  acid  dissolved  in  water  and  assimilated 
by  the  plants. 

The  natural  reaction  lasts  for  five  or  six  years,  and  there- 
fore no  fertilizer  is  needed  during  that  time.  Potassium 
may  be  obtained  by  burning  yuyo  Colorado,  an  indigenous 
plant  similar  to  the  salsola  of  Spain,  and  which  had  been 
utilized  in  the  making  of  soap,  for  ages  past.  If  in  addition 
to  this,  advantage  is  taken  of  the  opportunity  that  Uruguay 
affords  through  its  numberless  small  streams,  which  are  not 


182       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

to  be  duplicated  by  any  other  country  in  South  America, 
and  the  land  properly  irrigated,  if  necessary,  it  can  be  readily 
appreciated  that  the  scientific  cultivation  of  forage  will 
materially  increase  the  production  of  live  stock. 

The  region  of  Brie  in  France,  produces  about  6,000  kilos 
of  alfalfa  hay  every  year  for  three  years,  which  quantity  has 
been  surpassed  in  the  same  length  of  time  by  a  field  in  Villa 
Colon  near  Montevideo,  and  in  addition,  the  Montevideo 
alfalfa  continues  to  yield  for  five  years  instead  of  three  as 
in  Brie. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  CEREAL-PEODUCING  REGION  OF  SOUTH 
AMERICA— THE  ARGENTINA 

SUMMARY  ' 
Agricultural  Statistics  of  Chile,  Uruguay  and  Argentina. 

The  republics  of  Chile  and  Uruguay  produce  wheat  and 
other  cereals  in  sufficient  quantities  not  only  for  local  con- 
sumption, but  also  for  export,  though  the  quantity  exported 
is  very  small  in  comparison  to  that  exported  by  Argentina. 

Chilean  Agriculture 

Chile  has  more  than  700,000  square  kilometers  of  surface, 
but  the  portion  which  can  be  utilized  for  agriculture  even 
resorting  to  irrigation,  is  limited.  The  agricultural  district 
called  Valle  Central,  is  scientifically  cultivated  and  pro- 
duces cereals  of  all  kinds,  vegetables  and  fruits,  and  the 
best  of  wines.  According  to  the  Chilean  Bureau  of  Statis- 
tics published  by  the  Central  Statistical  Department,  the 
wheat  production  of  Chile  for  the  year  1916  was  as  follows : 

Quantity  of  Wheat  Quantity  per 

Hectares  Cultivated  Harvested  Hectare 

422,000  484,000  metric  tons  1,100  kilos 

Other  agricultural  products  harvested  in  Chile  in  1916 : 

Metric  Tons  of  1,000 
Kilos  Each 

Corn 39,000 

Oats 92,000 

Barley 94,000 

Beans 52,000 

Bean-pods 11,000 

Chick-pea 1,200 

Lentil 960 

Potatoes 316,000 

The  57,000  hectares  of  vineyards  produced  1,145,000  hecto- 
liters of  wine  and  294,000  hectoliters  of  chicha. 

183 


184       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

As  to  live-stock,  Chile  does  not  have  enough  for  its  own 
consumption  and  therefore  imports  large  quantities  from 
Argentina.  Chile  had  in  1916,  1,869,000  bovines  and 
4,568,000  head  of  sheep  which  produced  14,300  metric  tons 
of  wool.  The  southern  region  of  Magallanes  had  almost 
half  of  the  number  of  sheep  (2,071,000).  The  larger  part  of 
the  cattle  is  found  in  the  austral  provinces  of  Llanquihiie 
and  Valdivia,  and  the  central  provinces  of  Santiago  and 
Colchagua. 

Uruguayan  Agriculture 

The  Republica  Oriental  del  Uruguay  could  develop  into 
a  great  agricultural  center  like  Argentina,  as  its  soil  pro- 
duces wheat,  barley,  oats  and  other  grains,  but  being 
sparsely  settled,  only  enough  for  local  consumption  is  culti- 
vated. Irrigation  is  not  necessary  inasmuch  as  its  one  meter 
of  annual  rainfall  is  evenly  divided  throughout  the  seasons 
of  the  year,  besides,  it  has  more  rivers  than  any  other 
region  of  the  same  area  in  South  America.  It  produces  high 
grade  wines,  finest  of  fruits  and  vegetables,  particularly 
fruits  such  as  oranges,  peaches,  plums,  pears,  apples,  etc., 
which  compare  with  the  best  of  their  kind  in  California.  In 
fact,  it  could  be  developed  as  a  fruit  center  also,  were  the 
industry  to  be  exploited  as  it  is  in  the  United  States  of 
America. 

Lands  cultivated  in  Uruguay  in  1916-1917 : 

Harvested 
Tons  of  1,000  Kilos 

Wheat 315,000  hectares 146,600 

Corn 253,000        "       175,400 

Oats 57,000        "       27,900 

Argentine  Agriculture 

The  area  under  cultivation  in  Argentina  in  1917  was  much 
smaller  than  what  was  under  cultivation  in  1913  immedi- 
ately preceding  the  breaking  out  of  the  European  war,  or 
12,000,000  and  13,000,000  hectares  respectively.  Products 
exported  in  1917: 


THE  CEREAL  PRODUCING  REGION  185 

Year  1917 

Oats 271,000  metric  tons 

Flax 141,000      " 

Corn 893,000      "         " 

Wheat 935,000      " 

Wheat  flour 112,000       " 

Total  agricultural  exports  for  1917,  2,400,000  tons  valued 
at  144,000,000  gold  pesos ;  total  live-stock  products,  947,000 
tons  valued  at  370,000,000,  or  a  total  valuation  of  520,000,000 
gold  pesos.     (|5  Argentine  equals  English  pound.) 

The  agricultural  products,  which,  since  1907,  had  been 
gaining  in  value  over  the  live  stock,  diminished  in  1917,  but 
the  increase  in  the  prices  of  meat  and  wool  covered  the 
agricultural  deficit  of  that  year.  Wool  sold  for  as  much  as 
double  the  price  paid  in  normal  times,  from  10  to  14  gold 
pesos  in  1917. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


THE  MINERAL-PRODUCING  REGION  OF  SOUTH 
AMERICA— CHILE,  PERU  AND  BOLIVIA 

SUMMARY 
Mineral  Wealth — Mineral  Production  of  Peru,  Bolivia  and  Chile — Commercial  Activi- 
ties of  these  Countries. 

Mineral  Wealth  of  Chile 

After  describing  the  wealth  of  the  La  Plata  region  which 
can  adequately  be  called  the  ''Region  of  Cereals,  Meat  and 
Wool/'  we  next  take  np  the  study  of  the  great  Andean 
Mineral  Belt,  which  comprises  central  Peru,  Bolivia  and 
northern  Chile,  and  which  region  produces  nearly  all  the 
niter,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  copper,  lead,  silver  and  a 
few  other  metals  of  world-wide  importance. 

The  northern  part  of  Chile  from  Coquimbo  to  Iquique  and 
the  whole  Peruvian  coast  form  a  vast  arid  region  which  on 
account  of  its  having  no  rainfall  had  remained  uninhabited 
until  valuable  minerals  such  as  copper,  iron,  lead,  etc.,  were 
discovered. 

Mineral  Production  of  the  Andean  Region  in  1916 

$1.00  Chilean  peso=  18  d. =$0,222  Am.  Del.     1  Bol.-=19>^  d.      1  Peruvian  Pound  =  Eng- 
lish Pounds. 


Chile 

Bolivia 

Peru 

Value  in  Chilean  Pesos 

Value  in 

Value  in  Peruvian 

Gold 

Bolivianos 

Pound 

Products 

MilUons 

MilUons 

Millions 

Niter 

330 

Copper 

89 

14 

6.173 

Coal 

38 

.... 

Iodine 

20 

Silver 

2.2 

2.9 

0.038 

Gold 

1.6 

0.3 

Iron 

1.2 

Borate.  .  . 

1.8 

Sulphur 

2 

Common  salt.  . 

1 

is* 

Guano 

0.7 

Antimony.  .  .  . 

Bismuth 

3.6 

Lead 

0.3 

0.051 

Petroleum.  .  .  . 

1.182 

Vanadium .... 

0.309 

Tungsten 

0.099 

Wolfran 

i 

186 


MINEKAL-PKODUCING  REGION  187 

The  principal  minerals  of  Chile —        Principal    min-  Principal  Peru- 
Niter  and  copper.                                 erals    of    Bo-  vian  minerals 

livia — Copper  — Copper  and 

and  antimony.  Petroleum. 

Mineral  Wealth  in  Chile  1916 

Niter  constitutes  the  priucipal  source  of  wealth  of  Chile, 
and  in  1916  it  represented  66  per  cent  of  the  total  value  of 
minerals  exported  from  Chile,  the  Antofagasta  district  lead- 
ing with  199,000,000  pesos,  and  Tarapacd  second  with 
131,000,000.  Next  to  Niter,  Copper  is  the  principal  mineral 
of  Chile.  Value  of  Chilean  copper  exported  in  1916, 
89,000,000  pesos,  or  20  per  cent  of  the  total  value  of  minerals 
exported.  Copper  is  found  nearly  throughout  the  whole  of 
central  and  northern  Chile,  from  Tacna  and  Antofagasta  to 
Santiago  and  O'Higgins,  Antofagasta  and  O'Higgins  being 
the  best  producing  regions. 

Coal  ranks  third,  of  which  1,400,000  tons  valued  at 
138,000,000,  were  exported  in  1916.  The  southern  districts 
of  Concepcion,  Arauco  and  Magallanes  produce  the  most  of 
the  coal  of  Chile. 

Iodine  is  fourth  in  rank,  with  a  production  of  20,000,000 
pesos,  in  the  districts  of  Antofagasta  and  Tarapaca.  Silver 
comes  next,  the  value  of  the  quantity  exported  in  1916  hav- 
ing amounted  to  2,200,000  pesos.  Sulphur  is  next  in  rank, 
2,000,000  pesos  value  having  been  exported  in  1916.  (See 
table  of  mineral  production  of  Chile.) 

The  percentage  of  mineral  wealth  of  the  four  principal 
mining  districts  of  Chile  is  divided  as  follows :  Antofagasta 
51  per  cent;  Tarapaca  29  per  cent;  Concepcion  6  per  cent; 
O'Higgins  5.4  per  cent. 

Niter  exported  to  the  United  States  of  America  in  1916, 
165,000,000  pesos;  Great  Britain,  32,000,000;  France  and 
other  countries,  32,000,000.  Total  amount  of  other  minerals 
exported:  United  States,  239,000,000;  Great  Britain, 
104,000,000 ;  France,  35,000,000. 

Nationalities  represented  in  the  mining  industry  of  Chile, 
based  on  the  average  value  of  production,  rank  as  follows: 


188       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

Chileans,  192,000,000;  English,  136,000,000;  North  Ameri- 
cans, 59,000,000 ;  Germans,  44,000,000. 

Antofagasta,  a  very  important  port  of  exportation,  is 
utilized  by  Bolivia  by  means  of  the  railroad  which  connects 
the  said  port  with  the  city  of  La  Paz,  the  capital  of  Bolivia, 
over  the  Bolivian  plateau.  The  traffic  in  minerals  from 
Bolivia  through  the  port  of  Antofagasta  is  indeed  of  great 
importance,  as  is  also  that  through  the  ports  of  Mollendo 
and  Arica,  which  are  north  of  Antofagasta,  and  are  the 
terminal  points  of  railroads  in  Bolivia. 

Principal  minerals  exported  from  Bolivia  through  the 
port  of  Antofagasta  in  1916,  and  their  corresponding  value, 
as  follows:  Tin,  27,000,000;  Antimony,  14,000,000  Chilean 
pesos ;  Woljran,  about  1,000,000 ;  Silver,  1,200,000.  Through 
the  port  of  Mejillones  also  in  northern  Chile  and  just  a  few 
miles  north  of  Antofagasta,  Bolivia  exported:  Tin, 
15,000,000;  Antimony  and  other  minerals,  1,000,000  Chilean 
pesos  approximately.  Through  the  port  of  Arica,  another 
Chilean  port  situated  about  half-way  between  Iquique  and 
Mollendo,  Bolivia  exported  a  total  of  73,000,000  Chilean 
pesos  worth  of  Copper,  Tin,  Wolfran,  Antimony,  etc. 

Principal  ports  for  the  exportation  of  minerals,  in  the 
order  of  their  importance,  and  value  of  exports  in  Chilean 
pesos:  Antofagasta,  83,000,000;  Iquique,  83,000,000; 
Mejillones,  64,000,000;  Tocopilla,  42,000,000;  Valparaiso, 
40,000,000;  Caleta  Buena,  35,000,000;  Taltal,  28,000,000; 
Coloso,  18,000,000;  Pisagua,  11,000,000. 

Mineral  Wealth  of  Peru  in  1917 

Peru  is  also  very  rich  in  minerals.  The  value  of  mineral 
exports  about  equally  balances  that  of  vegetable  exports,  the 
former  averaging  about  43,000,000  Peruvian  pounds,  which 
are  equal  in  value  to  English  pounds  sterling,  and  the  latter 
44,000,000  in  1916.  The  main  source  of  mineral  wealth  is 
derived  from  the  copper  and  petroleum  which  are  exported 
chiefly  to  the  United  States  of  America,  England  and  Chile, 


THE  MlNERAL-rKODUCING  REGION  189 

Minerals  exported  from  Peru  in  1917,  value  in  Peruvian 
pounds: 

Peruvian  pounds 

Metallic  copper 6,077,000 

Petroleum  and  by-products 1,182,000 

Vanadium 309,000 

Tungsten 99,000 

Copper 103,000 

Silver 38,000 

Lead 35,000 

Lixiviated   sulphides 101,000 

Metallic  silver 5,000 

Metallic  lead 16,000 

Silver  precipitate 16,000 

Concentrated  copper 70,000 

Peru's  percentage  of  imports  and  exports  with  its  leading 

clients  in  1917  in  millions  £. 

United 
England        Stales  Chile 

Imports 20  57  13 

Exports 17  57  8 

Next  come  Bolivia,  with  £1,990,000  imports  and  £1,660,000  in  exports. 

Routes  for  the  Transportation  of  Peruvian  Commerce 

The  32,000,000  Peruvian  pounds,  which  represent  the 
commercial  activities  of  Peru  during  the  year  1917,  were 
divided  in  the  manner  of  routing,  as  follows :  Maritime, 
30,926,000;  Fluvial,  1,092,000;  Overland,  127,000. 

The  maritime  traffic  both  on  Peruvian  importation  and 
exportation   is  distributed  through  four   of   the  principal 

ports,  thus : 

Percentage  of  Percentage  of 

Port  Imports  Exports 

Callao 72%  53% 

Mollendo 8  9 

Paita 5  4 

Eten 3  3 

The  fluvial  ports:  Iquitos  of  Amazon — Imports,    3%;  exports,  3%. 

The  fluvial  i)orts:  Iquitos  of  Amazone,  import  3  per  cent; 
export  3  per  cent. 

Peru  has  many  other  Pacific  seaports  besides  those  already 
mentioned,  to  wit:  Salaverri,  Trujillo,  Chiniboto,  Corro 
Azul,  Pisco,  etc.,  and  on  the  Amazon,  the  ports  of  Iquitos, 


190       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

Loreto  and  Leticia,  the  latter  near  the  mouth  of  the  Javary, 
which  is  near  the  boundary  line  of  Brazil.  The  large  tribu- 
taries of  the  Amazon  in  Peru  are  navigable  to  very  close  to 
the  Andes. 

Peru  principally  imports  among  manufactured  articles, 
the  following:  tinctures,  colors,  chemical  products,  cotton, 
wool  and  jute  fabrics,  paper  and  cardboard,  iron  and  iron 
supplies,  electric,  industrial  and  agricultural  machinery, 
powder,  dynamite  and  other  explosives. 

Peru's  exports  in  1917  were  divided  as  follows:  Animal 
products,  11  per  cent;  vegetable,  41  per  cent;  mineral,  43 
per  cent.  The  mineral  and  vegetable  products  chiefly  ex- 
ported in  1917,  were:  metallic  minerals,  sugar,  cotton, 
borate,  gum  and  petroleum.  The  principal  animal  products 
exported : 

Peruvian  Pounds 

Alpaca  wool 845,000 

Sheep  wool,  washed 645,000 

"    ,  unwashed 219,000 

Hides,  sheep-skin  and  kid 343,000 

Cattle 84,000 

Principal  vegetable  products  exported  in  1917,  and  value 
in  Peruvian  pounds: 

Sugar 4,111,000  Cotton-seed  oil 120,000 

Cotton 4,878,000  Cotton-seed  and  paste. . .  96,000 

Gums 598,000  Rice 187,000 

Cocaine 36,000  Toquilla  straw  hats 40,000 

Commercial  Activities  in  Peru 
(1  Peruvian  Pound=Euglish  Pound.) 

The  Peruvian  pound  as  the  standard  unit  of  value  was 
adopted  since  1897.  It  is  equal  in  value  to  the  English 
pound  sterling  which  is  equivalent  to  5  Argentine  gold 
dollars.    The  Sol  of  gold  is  the  fifth  part  of  1  pound. 

The  augmented  commercial  activities  in  Peru  during  the 
quinquennium  of  1913-1918  were  due  to  two  essential 
reasons :  first — increase  in  the  price  of  all  commodities,  and 
second — increased  production. 


THE  MINERAL-PRODUCING  REGION  191 

In  studying  the  statistical  records  of  the  last  16  years 
beginning  with  1902,  we  notice  a  gradual,  though  slow  in- 
crease, as  the  following  figures  indicate — value  in  Peruviaji 
pounds : 

Years  Imports  (Pounds)    Exports  (Pouv/is) 

1902 3,420,000  3,700,000 

1917 13,500,000  18,137,000 

or  293  per  cent  increase  on  imports,  and  350  per  cent  on 
exports  in  16  years.  The  last  five  years  computation  shows 
the  following  increase: 

Years  Imports  (Pounds)  Exports  (Pounds) 

1913 6,088,000                 9,137,000 

1914 4,827,000                 8,767,000 

1915 3,095,000                11,521,000 

1916 8,683,000                16,541,000 

1917 13,500,000                18,643,000 

Principal  Imports  in  1917 

Cotton  fabrics 1,942,000  Peruvian  pounds 

Metals 3,689,000 

Implements,  etc 1,168,000         " 

Food 1,537,000 

Among  the  imported  articles  of  food,  we  find :  wheat 
(404,000  Peruvian),  fats,  wines,  fresh  and  dried  fruits,  and 
canned  milk. 

Bulky  articles  and  materials  imported:  lumber,  mineral 
coal,  oils  and  cement. 

Commercial  Activities  in  Bolivia — 1915 
(1  Boliviano— 19|d.) 

The  Bolivian  statistics  on  raw  material,  show  that 
Bolivia  produces  all  the  principal  minerals  known,  the  min- 
ing industry  constituting  its  principal  source  of  wealth. 

The  exports  for  1915  amounted  to  95,000,000  bolivianos. 
One  boliviano  is  equal  to  19^  English  pence. 

The  value  of  the  raw  material  exported  amounted  to 
90,000,000  bolivianos,  which  was  nearly  the  entire  value  of 
Bolivia's  exports.  Among  the  minerals,  tin  leads  with  44,- 
885,000  bolivianos  out  of  a  total  of  90,000,000.    Tin  exported 


192       SOUTH  AMERICA  TAST  AND  PRESENT 

in  1912  and  1913 :  60  and  67  million  bolivianos  respectively. 
Out  of  a  total  of  36  million  kilos  of  tin,  35  million  went  to 
England  and  1  million  to  the  United  States  of  America. 
Bolivia  ranks  second  with  29  per  cent  of  the  world's  produc- 
tion of  tin,  the  Straits  Settlements  leading  with  55  per  cent. 
The  copper  (rosicler)  exported  in  1915  amounted  to 
9,000,000  bolivianos,  or  a  total  production  of  17,000,000  kilos, 
of  which  13  million  were  exported  to  the  United  States  of 
America  and  4  million  to  England.  Copper  in  bars,  which 
was  exported  to  the  same  countries,  amounted  to  4  million 
bolivianos.  Total  copper  production,  14,000,000  bolivianos. 
Production  of  Wolfran,  792,000  kilos,  valued  at  1,000,000 
bolivianos,  exported  to  the  United  States  and  England. 
Antimony  produced,  17,000,000  kilos  valued  at  13,000,000  Bs., 
exported  also  to  the  United  States  and  England.  Bismuth 
comes  next  with  600,000  kilos,  valued  at  3,600,000  Bs., 
exported  to  England.  The  production  of  Silver  in  1915 
was  2,982,000  Bs.,  and  in  1918  it  reached  8,000,000  Bs. 
Lead  and  Gold  were  produced  in  smaller  quantities — 
362,000  and  306,000  Bs.,  respectively.  The  Gum  elastic 
or  Rubber  produced  in  1915,  reached  5,000,000  kilos  worth 
10,000,000  Bs.,  the  greater  part  of  which  was  exported  to 
the  United  States. 

Lines  of  Communication  in  Bolivia 

Bolivia  utilizes  the  ports  of  Antofagasta,  Arica  and  Mol- 
lendo  on  the  Pacific,  for  the  exportation  of  its  minerals, 
being  connected  with  these  ports  by  the  railroads,  which 
extend  to  the  mining  centers.  Arica  has  more  trafiic  for 
the  reason  that  it  is  the  shortest  route,  but  the  Bolivians 
complain  about  the  insufficiency  of  rolling  stock  to  take 
care  of  their  shipments  and  the  lack  of  shipping  facilities 
at  the  port,  which  is  smaller  than  the  port  of  Antofagasta, 
the  leading  seaport  of  that  region  for  south  bound  commerce. 

The  traffic  with  Argentina  will  not  be  of  much  importance 
until  the  railroad  from  Quiaca  on  the  frontier  to  the  towns  of 
Tupiza  and  Uyuni  is  completed.     The  railroad  Oran-Em- 


THE  MINERAL-PRODUCING  REGION  193 

barcacion  tends  to  augment  commercial  traffic  along  the 
eastern  region. 

The  leading  consumers  of  Bolivia's  exports  (in  bolivianos) 
rank  as  follows:  England,  66,000,000;  United  States, 
25,000,000;  Argentina,  1,400,000;  France,  817,000;  Chile, 
747,000.  Bolivia  imports  from  the  United  States,  4,770,000 ; 
England,  3,600,000;  Peru,  4,200,000;  Chile,  3,300,000. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE    TROPICAL    FRUIT-PRODUCING    REGION    OF 

SOUTH  AMERICA— BRAZIL,  ECUADOR,  COLOMBIA, 

VENEZUELA  AND  PARAGUAY 

Brazil 

We  have  in  previous  chapters  described  the  regions  where 
cereals  and  livestock  are  produced  (Argentine  and  Uru- 
guay) ;  mineral  producing  region  (the  Andean  republics  of 
Chile,  Bolivia  and  Peru)  ;  and  we  will  now  describe  the 
regions  where  the  tropical  products  of  South  America  are 
to  be  found.  These  products  include :  coffee,  cotton,  tobacco, 
sugar,  mate,  bean  cocoa,  rice  and  lumber. 

We  learned  that  the  agricultural  industry  of  Peru  is  about 
equal  in  importance  to  its  mining  industry,  particularly  in 
the  production  of  sugar  and  cotton.  Ecuador,  Colombia 
and  Venezuela  also  have  like  products  which  make  the  bulk 
of  the  exports,  but  Brazil  is  the  largest  exporter  of  tropical 
products,  inasmuch  as  its  area  is  larger  than  all  the  other 
countries  of  the  central  region  combined  and  the  fertility  of 
its  soil  is  such  that  everything  is  produced  in  vast  quantities. 
We  have  also  learned  that  Brazil  has  30,000,000  bovines, 
but  considering  that  it  has  a  population  of  24,000,00,  and  its 
climatic  conditions  not  being  altogether  suitable  for  the 
development  of  the  best  breeds  of  cattle,  it  is  reasonable  to 
believe  that  Brazil  will  not  be  a  large  exporter  of  meatvS, 
and  its  southern  region  (Rio  Grande  and  Santa  Catalina) 
and  portions  of  the  central  plateaus  (San  Paulo,  Matto 
Grosso,  Goyaz,  etc.)  will  raise  enough  livestock  to  supply  the 
local  markets.  Out  of  30  million  bovines,  exported  2G,000 
tons  in  1910  and  51,000  in  1917.  The  foregoing  figures  repre- 
sent hardly  half  of  the  quantity  of  meats  which  Uruguay 

194 


THE  TROnCAL  FRUIT-rRODUCING  REGION  195 

exported  in  1917,  and  less  than  one-fourth  of  the  meat  which 
Uruguay  exported  in  1916. 

However  deficient  the  conditions  might  be  for  the  raising 
of  livestock  in  Brazil,  specially  sheep,  it  is  endowed  with 
exceptionally  desirable  conditions  for  the  production  of 
tropical  products  of  all  descriptions.  The  celebrated  natur- 
alist Agassiz,  whom  we  have  mentioned  quite  frequently 
and  whose  reports  are  worthy  of  repetition  and  belief,  made 
a  thorough  study  of  the  fauna  and  flora  of  Brazil  during  a 
trip  of  several  years'  duration  in  the  Amazonian  region,  and 
in  describing  its  natural  wealth  he  made  it  clear  that 
there  was  no  other  region  in  the  world  which  could  compare 
with  it  in  the  variety  and  abundance  of  fine  grade  lumber, 
which  can  be  utilized  for  general  and  naval  construction. 

Brazil  produces  all  the  hard  woods  not  subject  to  decay 
in  water,  such  as  the  nanduhay,  which  is  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  fences  on  the  farms  of  the  La  Plata,  also  the 
quebracho,  lapacho  and  viraro  of  Chaco  and  Paraguay, 
which  are  of  equal  hardness  and  incorruptibility.  The  pine 
forests  of  Brazil,  which  pine  is  now  being  utilized  on  the  La 
Plata  in  the  absence  of  Canadian  pine,  cover  areas  of  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  square  kilometers.  Should  Brazil  at 
any  time  control  her  own  merchant  marine  and  be  in  a  posi- 
tion to  properly  exploit  her  extraordinary  wealth  of  lumber, 
she  will  inundate  the  world  with  lumber  which  Europeans 
have  not  even  seen,  and  which  lumber  is  adapted  to  all  works 
of  construction  not  excepting  marine. 

The  lumber  now  used  in  Europe  and  in  the  United  States, 
in  the  construction  of  piers,  does  not  compare  with  the  beams 
of  various  kinds  of  hard  wood  (quebracho,  urundey,  fiandu- 
bay,  etc.),  which  trees  are  larger  than  any  that  grow  in 
Europe,  and  which  last  indefinitely  under  water.  Notwith- 
standing this  enormous  wealth,  the  exportation  of  lumber 
from  Brazil  has  just  recently  begun  to  show  any  importance, 
particularly  the  pine  and  cedar  forests,  which  produced 
64,000  tons  of  lumber  in  1916,  and  144,000  tons  in  1918. 
These  are  very  large  forests  all  along  the  coast  of  the  Atlau- 


196       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

tic,  on  ranges  not  far  from  shipping  points.  The  Brazilian 
cedar  has,  on  account  of  its  low  price,  replaced  the  Canadian 
pine  in  the  construction  of  doors,  windows  and  shutters. 

Rubber,  a  product  which  has  created  world-wide  demand, 
is  very  abundant  in  the  region  along  the  tributaries  of  the 
Amazon,  specially  on  the  Acre  over  territory  drained  by  this 
river,  a  tributary  of  the  Purus,  which  territory  Bolivia 
ceded  to  Brazil  in  exchange  for  the  railroad  of  the  Madeira. 
Rubber  exportation  has  decreased  during  the  last  few  years, 
from  25,000  tons  in  1914  to  15,000  in  1918. 

Brazil  has  been  exporting  rice  to  the  La  Plata,  replacing 
that  which  had  been  coming  from  Italy  and  Spain.  In  1916 
she  exported  36,000  tons  to  the  La  Plata  markets.  Flour 
of  Tapioca,  known  on  the  La  Plata  as  farina,  has  shown  the 
largest  increase  in  production,  45,000  tons  of  this  product 
having  been  shipped  to  Montevideo  and  Buenos  Aires  in 
1918.  This  article  of  food  is  very  popular  in  Uruguay,  as 
it  is  an  excellent  and  exceptionally  nutritive  substitute  for 
the  potato. 

Though  Brazil  has  very  valuable  minerals,  only  manganese 
(two  million  pounds  exported  in  1918)  and  coal  are  ex- 
ploited, the  latter  for  the  consumption  of  the  Brazilian 
railroads. 

The  following  figures  give  Brazil's  exports  during  the  first 
nine  months  of  1918 : 

Nine  Months 
Value  in  Pounds 
Product  Sterling 

Coffee 13,000,000 

Rubber 2,600,000 

Sugar 2,240,000 

Tobacco 1,790,000 

Mate 1,500,000 

Bean 1,300,000 

Cocoa 1,200,000 

Carnauba  (wax) 900,000 

Rice 800,000 

Lumber 800,000 

Brazil's  exports  gradually  increased  from  year  to  year 
since  1914  till  1917,  when  the  maximum  value  of  £63,000,000 


THE  TROPICAL  FRUIT-PRODUCING  REGION   197 

in  1917  was  reached  ($46,000,000  in  1914).  The  imports 
also  increased  during  the  same  period,  from  35,000,000  in 
1914  to  44,000,000  in  1917. 

Tropical  Regions  of  the  Northern  Andes — Ecuador_, 
Colombia,  Venezuela 

ECUADOR 

(1  Sucre  =  10.50) 

Next  to  Brazil,  which  is  the  largest  region  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  tropical  products,  there  is  a  smaller  region  composed 
of  the  countries  occupying  the  northern  part  of  South 
America,  and  which  are  Ecuador,  Colombia  and  Venezuela. 
Though  they  are  small  compared  with  Brazil,  they  cover  a 
large  expanse  of  territory.  Ecuador  has  an  area  of  300,000 
square  kilometers,  and  the  other  two,  more  than  one  million 
square  kilometers  of  surface  each ;  in  other  words,  Colombia 
or  Venezuela  either  one  is  larger  than  France  and  Germany 
combined,  but  the  production  does  not  correspond  to  the 
extent  and  wealth  of  its  agricultural  products — coffee,  sugar, 
cotton  and  cocoa. 

Since  1877,  Ecuador  has  quite  methodically  increased  its 
production  of  cocoa,  exporting  45,000,000  kilos  in  1917,  of 
which  37,000,000  were  shipped  to  the  United  States.  Total 
valuation  of  cocoa  exported  that  year,  26,000,000  sucres  (1 
Sucre  equal  in  value  to  |0.50  American  gold). 

Coffee  exported  in  1917 :  2,669,000  kilos,  of  which  quantity 
2,400,000  went  to  Chile.  Total  coffee  production  for  1917 : 
1,300,000  sucres. 

Unpeeled  tagua  exported  in  1917:  7,700,000  kilos,  valued 
at  616,000  sucres,  nearly  the  entire  quantity  having  been 
exported  to  the  United  States.  Peeled  tagua  exported  dur- 
ing the  same  year:  8,500,000  kilos,  valued  at  1,160,000  sucres, 
the  United  States  being  the  biggest  consumer  (over  5,000,000 
kilos).  England  and  Spain  came  next  with  more  than 
1,000,000  kilos  each.  The  production  in  1913  was  much 
larger,  when  the  total  quantity  exported  amounted  to 
31,000,000  kilos. 


198       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

The  rubber  exported  by  Ecuador  in  1917  amounted  to 
more  than  412  tons  with  a  valuation  of  728,000  sucres. 

The  value  of  the  hides  exported  during  the  same  year  was 
1,320,000  snores.  Value  of  straw  hats  exported:  1,918,000 
sucres,  most  of  which  were  sent  to  the  United  States.  The 
quantities  of  tobacco,  quinine  and  cdscara  de  mangle  ex- 
ported, were  of  small  importance,  the  largest  being  that  of 
tobacco,  value  20,000  sucres. 

The  value  of  Ecuador's  total  exports  for  1917,  was  33,- 
500,000  sucres,  28,000,000  of  which  represented  the  exports 
shipped  through  Guayaquil.  Besides  the  products  above 
mentioned,  Ecuador  exported  (within  the  above  valuation) 
wool,  836,000  sucres;  gold  bars,  1,824,000,  and  900,000  in 
minerals  (not  specified,  as  the  statistics  only  refer  to 
mineral  ores) . 

The  value  of  Ecuador's  imports  for  1917  was  20,900,000 
sucres  of  which  12,000,000  came  from  the  United  States, 
5,000,000  from  England  and  more  than  one  million  from 
Spain.  More  than  19,000,000  came  through  Guayaquil. 
Principal  articles  imported :  Fabrics,  6,000,000 ;  food, 
3,000,000 ;  metallic  articles,  1,500,000 ;  clothing,  1,000,000. 


COLOMBIA 

(1|  Colombiano  =z  |1.00) 

Colombia  occupies  fourth  place  in  South  America,  in 
extent  of  territory  (see  Table  of  Statistics).  It  is  at  pres- 
ent in  dispute  with  Ecuador  and  Peru  regarding  the  question 
of  boundaries. 

Brazil,  Argentina  and  Bolivia  rank  first  in  the  order 
named.  Colombia  has  an  area  of  1,300,000  square  kilo- 
meters, of  which,  more  than  two-thirds  (805,000)  comprise 
the  plains  drained  by  the  tributaries  of  the  Amazon — large 
navigable  streams,  among  them  the  Caquetd,  2,200  kilometers 
long,  the  Putumayo  and  the  Yapura.  The  Orinoco  forms 
part  of  the  boundary  between  Colombia  and  Venezuela.    The 


THE  TROPICAL  FRUIT  PRODUCING  REGION   190 

principal  tributaries  of  the  Orinoco  are  the  Ouaviare  and 
the  Meta. 

The  plains  of  Colombia  produce  high  grade  lumber,  rub- 
ber, coffee,  cocoa,  cotton,  tagua,  etc.  Cattle  thrive  well  in 
this  region. 

The  mountains  cover  more  than  400,000  square  kilometers 
of  surface  in  the  central  part,  and  are  more  than  3,000 
meters  above  sea-level.  The  highest  points  are  Suma  Paz 
(4,810  meters)  and  Sierra  de  Cocul  (5,784  meters).  The 
climate  at  3,000  and  4,000  meters  elevation  is  very  mild  and 
agreeable,  and  in  direct  contrast  with  the  very  warm  and 
moist  climate  of  the  plains. 

At  the  "Nevado  de  Tolima"  the  Central  range  attains  a 
height  of  5,584  meters.  It  is  in  this  mountain  district  where 
the  population  is  concentrated,  and  where  the  capital  and 
larger  cities  of  Colombia  are  situated.  Here  we  find  the 
bulk  of  the  white  population  the  descendants  of  the 
Spaniards,  of  pure  Spanish  blood,  and  the  mestizos.  Ac- 
cording to  Don  Rafael  Uribe  y  Uribe,  66  per  cent  of  the 
population  is  composed  of  pure  whites  and  mestizos,  the 
latter  the  cross  between  whites  and  Indians,  called  "criollos" 
and  whose  skin  shows  the  characteristics  of  the  white  race, 
with  a  very  slight  tinge  of  a  copperish  hue.  Indians  comprise 
14  per  cent  of  the  population,  Negroes  4  per  cent  and  the 
cross  between  the  Indians  and  Negroes  6  per  cent. 

The  Andes  in  Colombia  are  divided  into  three  small 
ranges,  called  Occidental,  Central  and  Oriental,  which, 
starting  at  the  southern  extremity,  open  up  like  the  ribs  of 
a  fan  with  large  valleys  between,  running  north  and  south, 
and  over  which  valleys  the  large  rivers  of  Colombia  flow — 
the  Magdalena  (1,700  kms.)  ;  the  Atrato  (570)  ;  the  Cauca, 
a  tributary  of  the  Magdalena  (1350).  These  three  rivers 
flow  in  a  northerly  direction  into  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Ac- 
cording to  Humboldt,  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  Santa  Marta 
forms  an  isolated  mountain  system  near  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
terminating  at  Mt.  Horqueta  (5,847  m.  elev.). 

These  ranges  form   the  relief   and   the  three   zones   of 


200       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

Colombia :  The  dry  and  sultry  coast  with  very  little  rainfall ; 
the  eastern  plains,  and  the  central  plateau  which  is  at  3,000 
to  4,000  meters  above  sea-level. 

Bogota  is  the  principal  and  the  capital  city  of  Colombia. 
Population,  150,000.  Elevation,  2,650  meters.  It  has  a 
very  pleasant  climate,  the  average  mean  temperature  being 
14°  centigrade,  three  degrees  colder  than  Montevideo  and 
Buenos  Aires,  which  cities  are  in  latitude  35°  south,  while 
Bogota  is  in  latitude  4°  north. 

Bogota  is  a  city  of  culture,  its  famous  university  having 
won  for  it  the  title  of  the  "Athens  of  the  North."  The 
"Salto  de  Tequendama,"  one  of  the  wonders  of  America,  is 
at  a  short  distance  from  the  city.  Here  the  Bogota  river 
drops  precipitately  a  distance  of  146  meters.  Another  spot 
of  interest  near  the  city  is  the  "Abismo  del  Pandi,"  a  crevice 
or  gulch  5  kilometers  long  and  85  meters  deep. 

Other  important  cities:  Medellin  (71,000  pop.)  ;  Barran- 
quilla  (48,000)  ;  Cartagena  (36,000)  ;  Pasto  (27,000)  ;  Call 
(27,000)  ;  Manizales  (34,000). 

Colombia  at  one  time  formed  a  part  of  Greater  Colombia, 
which  also  included  Ecuador  and  Venezuela,  over  which  the 
Liberator  Bolivar  presided,  but  which  union  was  dissolved 
in  1830,  when  it  took  the  name  of  Republica  de  Colombia. 
During  the  dominion  by  Spain  it  was  called  Nueva  Granada. 

Coffee  represents  50  per  cent  of  the  exports  of  Colombia, 
which  in  1916  amounted  to  31,000,000  pesos  in  value.  The 
exports  of  1915,  in  Colombian  x>esos — (rate  of  exchange,  1 
Colorabiano  is  equal  to  fl.OO  American  at  par)  were: 

Vegetable  products 19,400,000 

Mineral             "        7,200,000 

Animal              "       3,100,000 

Manufactured  "        1,100,000 

Live  animals             520,000 

The  Colombian  pound  is  equivalent  to  the  English  pound 
sterling,  or  |5.00  gold. 

The  exports  in  either  of  the  years  1912,  1913,  1914,  and 
1915,  surpassed  those  of  the  year  1916,  particularly  in  1913, 


THE  TROPICAL  FRUIT-PRODUCING  REGION  201 

when  the  value  of  the  exports  reached  34,300,000  pesos 
Colombiauos. 

Value  of  vegetable  products  exported:  1916,  Coffee,  12,- 
000,000;  bananas,  2,000,000;  tobacco,  011,000;  tagua  or  vege- 
table ivory,  300,000;  rubber,  723,000. 

Value  of  minerals  exported :  Gold,  5,200,000 ;  platinum, 
2,017,000.  Emeralds  did  not  make  a  good  showing,  although 
the  Muzo  emeralds  have  become  quite  famous. 

Value  of  animal  products  exported :  Hides,  2,993,000 ; 
sheep-skins  and  others,  83,000. 

Value  of  manufactured  products  exported :  Sugar,  211,000 ; 
Panama  hats,  871,000. 

Value  of  live  animals  exported:  Cattle,  514,000;  horses, 
2,400. 

Colombia  has  7,000,000  head  of  cattle. 

Value  of  exports  to  the  United  States  of  America :  Vege- 
table products,  19,000,000;  mineral  products,  6,000,000; 
animal  products,  2,750,000;  manufactured  products,  more 
than  1,000,000. 

Out  of  a  total  value  of  31,000,000  of  Colombia's  exports, 
27,000,000  went  to  the  United  States  of  America. 

Value  of  Colombia's  imports  for  1916 :  29,000,000,  of  which 
more  than  half  (10,500,000)  came  from  the  United  States. 
Then  followed  England  with  7,500,000;  Spain,  700,000; 
France,  600,000;  Italy,  550,000.  Principal  articles  im- 
ported: Textiles,  13,400,000;  metals,  2,240,000;  food, 
2,400,000;  drugs  and  medicines,  1,300,000;  agricultural  and 
mining  machinery,  830,000;  books  and  paper,  913,000;  bev- 
erages, wines  and  liquors,  000,000. 

The  three  ranges  of  mountains  make  communication  be- 
tween central  Colombia  and  the  raclfic  Ocean  and  the 
Caribbean  Sea  extremely  difficult.  The  Magdalena  and  the 
Atrate  rivers  admit  small  ves.sels  far  into  the  interior  of  the 
country.  The  capital  has  railway  connection  with  the 
Magdalena,  at  the  port  of  Girardot. 

There  are  ten  short  railroad  lines  with  a  total  longitude 
of  1,000  kilometers,  connecting  the  cities  in  the  interior  with 


202        SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

the  Pacific  ports,  and  which  lines  run  as  follows:  Buena- 
ventura to  Call  on  the  Cauca  valley ;  Cartagena,  a  port  on  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  to  Calamar  on  th«  Magdalena ;  Santa  Marta 
on  the  Caribbean  Sea  to  the  banana  producing  region,  and  to 
the  Magdalena  :  Port  Girardot  on  the  Magdalena  to  Chicoral, 
connecting  with  the  railroad  at  Buenaventura,  a  port  on  the 
Pacific;  Cucuta  to  the  Zubia  river  on  the  Venezuelan 
frontier. 

Principal  ports:  Barranquilla,  Puerto  Colombia  or  Saba- 
nilla,  ^anta  Marta  and  Riohacha  on  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and 
Buenaventura  on  the  Pacific. 

VENEZUELA 

(1  Bolivar  equals  1  Franc  gold,  or  |0.19) 

Venezuela  is  a  large  country  of  more  than  1,000,000  square 
kilometers  in  area.  (See  Table  of  Statistics.)  The  Orinoco 
river  divides  the  country  into  two  parts — the  northern  por- 
tion comprises  the  valleys  of  which  we  have  made  mention 
before  in  the  chapter  on  orography,  also  a  few  mountain 
chains,  the  last  straggling  ramifications  of  the  Andes,  and 
which  end  on  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

We  will  leave  the  description  to  an  eminent  Venezuelan 
writer,  R.  Blanco  Fombona,  who  has  been  Governor  of  the 
territory  of  the  Amazon,  the  southern  region  lying  between 
Rio  Negro  and  the  Parima  mountains: 

"The  Orinoco  first  flows  in  a  northerly  direction  to  Mai- 
pures,  where  it  suddenly  comes  upon  a  mountain  of  granite 
which  obstructs  its  way.  A  terrific  struggle  between  two 
veritable  giants,  the  River  and  the  Mount,  takes  place.  The 
Mount  interposes,  but  the  River  persists  and  finally  its 
waters  run  over  the  promontories  of  stone.  The  River 
passes  but  the  Mount  will  not  give  in  and  so  the  Orinoco 
(the  River)  is  compelled  to  change  its  course  by  turning  to 
the  right  and  continuing  its  journey  to  the  sea,  no  longer 
flowing  north  but  from  west  to  east.  The  field  of  struggle 
is  along  a  stretch  50  to  GO  kilometers  in  length.    The  Mount 


THE  TROPICAL  FRUIT  PRODUCING  REGION  203 

seems  to  advance  against  the  stream  which  has  beeo  gradu- 
ally demolishing  its  granite  prows  by  the  force  of  its  rush- 
ing waters.  These  rock  crumbs,  these  fragments  of  stone, 
are  not  merely  pebbles  or  chipped  stones,  but  gigantic 
rounded  boulders  having  the  appearancee  of  cupolas  of  sub- 
merged temples  or  raised  but  roofless  stelas,  obelisks  or 
ramparts,  or  even  that  of  stumps  of  well-shaped  trees  in  a 
forest  of  lifeless  vegetation. 

"The  Orinoco  stream  rushes  precipitately  over  the  rugged 
rocky  passes,  dashes  against  the  high  walls  of  granite  and 
spreads  over  the  sides,  forming  magnificent  cataracts.  The 
thundering  noise  of  its  raging  waters  reechoes  in  the  desert 
many  miles  away,  rhythmical,  muffled,  constant,  as  if  that 
continuous  thunder  were  the  throbbing  heart  of  the  far  dis- 
tant forest.  Such  are  the  rapids  of  Atures  and  Maipures:  a 
mountain  of  granite  crumbling  in  the  bed  of  the  stream,  a 
massive  gate  of  stone,  a  sealed  gate  placed  there  by  nature 
for  the  coming  civilization,  and  it  will  not  yield  until  the 
power  of  dynamite  pronounces  its  command  to  open  up. 

These  rapids  are  avoided  by  the  traveler  who  steps  on  laud 
on  reaching  this  point  and  connects  with  that  part  of  the 
river  which  lies  separated  from  the  field  of  struggle,  then 
continues  on  his  way.  The  indigenous  products  of  the  upper 
Orinoco  and  the  Rio  Negro,  which  are  sent  to  Ciudad 
Bolivar,  as  well  as  the  merchandise  which  is  sent  back  from 
the  latter  place,  are  transferred,  upon  reaching  the  rapids, 
to  oxen  drawn  carts." 

In  speaking  of  the  territory  of  the  Amazon,  Fombona  says : 
"That  land  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  fertile  regions  of 
the  globe,  though  jet  unknown.  It  is  drained  by  some  of 
the  largest  rivers — the  Rio  Negro  and  the  Orinoco.  The 
latter  connects  with  the  Amazon,  through  the  Rio  Negro  and 
the  Casiquiare.  The  yet  virgin  forests  cover  hundreds  of 
square  leagues,  where  rubber,  sarsaparilla,  vanilla,  zarrapia, 
and  a  variety  of  tropical,  resinous  and  medicinal  woods  of 
the  finest  grade  are  produced, 

"Rubber  is  the  principal  product  exploited,  and  it  yields 


204        SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

vast  raturns.  Rubber  is  bought  from  the  Indian  at  160 
bolivares  (francos)  per  quintal  (one  hundred  kilo  weight) 
and  it  is  sold  in  Europe  for  SOO  bolivares.  The  150  bolivares 
are  paid  to  the  Indian,  not  in  money  but  in  merchandise  of 
prime  necessity,  sold  to  him  at  a  profit  of  about  200  per  cent. 
It  is  a  country  of  fables:  it  has  large  rivers  of  different 
colors,  one  with  dark  waters,  one  with  almost  black — Rio 
Kegro — (Black  River),  another  with  reddish  water — the 
Atadapo — another  with  green  waters — the  Cataniapo — and 
still  another  with  yellow  waters — the  Guaviare.  Many 
races  of  Indians  inhabit  Venezuela,  and  all  are  harmless, 
most  of  them  are  of  industrious  habits,  and  some  of  them 
very  intelligent.  In  this  region  poverty  is  unknown  and 
gold  is  plentiful,  and  though  only  at  a  distance  of  eight 
degrees  from  the  equator,  the  climate  which  is  tempered  by 
the  coolness  from  the  rivers  and  the  constant  fanning  of 
the  numerous  trees,  is  indeed  very  pleasant.  Only  one  bad 
thing  exists  there  and  that  is — the  white  man — he  of  the 
motley  crowd  who  has  gone  there  to  amass  a  fortune  in  that 
country.  All  lawless  individuals  who  are  seeking  shelter 
from  the  branch  of  society  that  pursues  them,  go  there.  All 
merchants  who  have  failed  and  wish  to  rebuild  their  fortunes 
at  the  expense  of  scruples,  go  there.  The  territory  of  the 
Amazon  is,  in  the  plain  twentieth  century,  somewhat  similar 
to  what  all  America  may  have  been  at  the  time  of  the  first 
conquest." 

The  exploitation  of  which  the  Indian  workman  is  a  victim 
is  general  over  all  South  America  from  the  Putumayo  and 
the  Orinoco  to  Paraguay.  It  suffices  to  read  Barret's  "El 
Dolor  Paraguayo"  to  form  an  idea  of  the  barbarism  and 
iniquity  with  which  the  workingmen  who  prepare  the  yerba 
mate  in  Paraguay  are  treated. 

The  tributaries  of  the  Orinoco — Ventuari,  Caura,  Caroni 
— are  important  streams  which  drain  the  mountainous  terri- 
tory in  the  southern  part,  covered  by  thick  forests  which 
produce  all  kinds  of  fine  lumber.  The  other  tributaries — 
Guaviare,  Vichada,  Meta  and  Apure — which  drain  to  the 


THE  TROPICAL  FKU IT  PRODUCING  REGION  205 

left,  are  also  large  streams.  The  Meta  aud  the  Guaviare 
iiow  for  a  considerable  distance  of  their  course  over  the 
plains  of  Colombia,  having  their  source  at  the  foot  of  the 
Oriental  range.  The  Casiquiare  river  joins  the  Atabasco,  a 
tributary  of  the  Orinoco,  with  the  Rio  Negro  a  tributary  of 
the  Amazon.  The  tributaries  of  the  Orinoco  are  navigable 
for  a  long  distance,  as  may  be  observed  on  the  map  ''Means 
of  Communication."  The  Orinoco  offers  navigable  waters 
for  transatlantic  traffic  to  near  the  mouth  of  the  Apure,  from 
which  point  it  becomes  more  shallow  due  to  various  cata- 
racts which  are  found  along  its  course  though  permitting  the 
navigation  of  small  vessels,  except  at  the  rapids  of  Atures 
and  Maipures. 

Communication  between  the  Amazon  and  the  Orinoco, 
through  the  Rio  Negro,  the  Casiquiare  and  Atabaspo,  is 
difficult.  This  route  was  studied  by  Micheleua  and  Rojas 
through  recommendation  of  the  Venezuelan  government. 
The  shortest  route  is  through  the  Rio  Negro  aud  the  isthmus 
of  Pimichiu  lying  between  this  river  and  the  Temi,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Atabaspo.  The  land  here  is  level,  and  within 
the  60  kilometers  of  distance  there  are  a  few  lakes.  The 
cities  of  Maroa  and  Yavite,  which  are  on  the  line  of  the 
projected  canal,  are  daily  increasing  their  operations. 

The  plains  of  the  Orinoco,  which  we  have  described  in  the 
continental  orography  at  the  beginning  of  this  book,  occupy 
almost  one-fourth  of  the  territory  of  Venezuela.  The  Carib- 
bean Hills,  the  Segovia  Highlands  and  the  Merida  Range, 
are  to  be  seen  on  the  northern  and  northwestern  part  of 
these  plains,  near  the  coast.  Near  Caracas  rises  the  Silla 
to  2,800  meters,  and  greatest  height  is  attained  at  Columna 
on  the  Sierra  Nevada,  which  is  5,000  meters  above  sea-level, 
and  has  perpetual  snow. 

We  stated  in  the  orographical  section  that  the  mountain- 
ous district  of  the  northern  part  formed  by  the  Andes  is 
divided  into  warm,  temperate  and  cold  belts,  according  to 
the  altitude,  and  that  the  products  correspond  to  the  three 
climatic  belts,  ranging  from  cocoa  in  the  lower  valleys  to 


206       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

moss,  which  is  only  found  in  the  high  frozen  regions  or 
paramos.  La  Guayan,  or  rather,  all  the  territory  to  the 
south  called  the  territory  of  the  Amazon,  which  includes  all 
the  land  between  the  Parima  and  the  Rio  Negro,  is  drained 
by  upper  Orinoco.  This  region  is  exceptionally  rich  in 
lumber,  such  as  mahogany,  silk-cotton-tree,  balata  or  gum- 
tree,  cinchona,  palms,  cedars,  etc.  Shomburg's  catalog 
gives  2,500  species  of  plants  in  Venezuela  which  are  the  same 
as  are  found  in  Brazil  and  on  the  plains  of  Colombia. 

The  similarity  of  the  fauna  of  Venezuela  and  Brazil  is 
noticeable — gimnotus  electric,  alligators,  'boas,  carpinchos 
or  capyhara,  comadrejas  or  opossums,  ant-hear,  and  even 
the  sheep-tick,  which  attacks  not  only  sheep  but  cattle  as 
well  and  which  kills  so  many  animals  in  the  La  Plata,  where 
they  find  it  necessary  to  bathe  the  live  stock  in  water  pre- 
pared with  insecticide  in  order  to  protect  it  from  this  hor- 
rible plague.  Even  the  Indians  of  Venezuela,  called  Caribes, 
belong  to  the  race  of  the  Guaranies,  who  inhabit  Brazil  and 
Paraguay. 

The  same  gigantic  skeletons  of  the  Megatherium,  which 
inhabited  the  Pampa  of  Argentina,  are  found  on  the  banks 
of  the  tributaries  of  the  Orinoco. 

The  gauchos  or  llaneros  of  the  plains  of  the  Orinoc.o  re- 
semble the  gauchos  of  the  La  Plata  in  habits,  indomitable 
courage,  in  the  earnestness  displayed  in  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence, moral  character,  as  they  both  descend  from  the 
Guaranies  and  Spaniards. 

These  gauchos  herd  several  million  head  of  cattle,  though 
how  many  is  not  definitely  known,  but  it  is  the  opinion  of 
some  Venezolanos,  that  there  are  eight  or  ten  million,  while 
others  claim  that  they  own  no  more  than  two  million  head. 
Leonardo  V.  Dalton,  in  a  very  interesting  book  published  in 
London  in  1912,  stated  that  according  to  data  he  received  in 
Venezuela,  the  number  of  cattle  at  that  time  would  pot 
exceed  two  million  head,  but  that  there  were  as  many  as 
eight  and  one-half  million  in  1888. 

We  have  not  been  able  to  obtain  any  additional  data  after 


THE  TROPICAL  FRUIT  rRODUCING  REGION  207 

visiting  the  Consulate  General  of  Venezuela  in  New  York, 
and  the  same  thing  is  true  regarding  inforjuation  about 
Colombia  and  Ecuador,  inasmuch  as  the  publication  of 
statistics  in  these  three  countries  is  limited.  Among  the 
minerals,  the  following  abound :  Petroleum,  gold,  silver,  cop- 
per and  iron,  but  on  inspection  of  the  table  of  exports,  the 
reader  will  notice  that  the  mineral  production  is  small  con- 
sidering the  vast  natural  resources  of  the  country. 

Agriculture  is  the  main  industry  of  the  country,  large 
quantities  of  coffee,  cocoa,  sugar  and  corn  being  produced; 
the  first  three  form  the  bulk  of  vegetable  products  exported. 
Minerals  exported :  Melted  gold,  copper,  asphalt,  petroleum. 

The  exportation  of  meats  is  beginning  to  be  of  importance, 
and  it  is  believed  that  the  plains  of  the  Orinoco  will  in  time 
supply  a  good  quantity  of  the  meat  to  the  packing  industry. 
The  exports  also  include  live  cattle  and  hides. 

Other  miscellaneous  articles  exported :  Fine  pearls,  pea- 
nuts, goat-skins,  sole-leather,  fine  lumber,  beans,  balata, 
rubber.  Traffic  is  handled  mostly  through  La  Guayra, 
Maracaibo  and  Puerto  Cabello,  which  are  about  equally  im- 
portant. Next  in  importance  are  the  ports  of  Ciudad 
Bolivar,  Carupano,  Puerto  Sucre,  La  Vela  and  Cristobal 
Colon. 

Two-thirds  of  the  exports  of  Venezuela  go  to  the  United 
States,  the  balance  mostly  to  France,  Spain,  Curacao  and 
Trinidad. 

Imports  received  from  the  United  States  about  80  per  cent, 
the  balance  mostly  from  England,  Spain  and  Italy. 

There  are  under  operation  925  kilometers  of  railroads. 
The  principal  lines  are:  Caracas  to  the  port  of  La  Guayra; 
Valencia  to  Puerto  Cabello;  Caracas  to  Valencia;  Trujillo 
to  Seiba  on  Lake  Maracaibo;  Barquisimeto  to  Tucacas. 
The  standard  unit  of  value  is  the  bolivar,  which  is  equiva- 
lent to  the  franc  (gold). 

The  total  value  of  Venezuela's  imports  in  1916  were 
13,000,000  dollars  against  23,000,000  of  exports.  (See  the 
Table  on  South  American  Commerce.) 


208       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

Principal  articles  exported  in  1915,  in  bolivares: 

Coffee 54,600,000           Cattle 1,400,000 

Cocoa 22,039,000           Rubber 1,400,000 

Hides 8,600,000           Sole-leather 600,000 

Balata 2,900,000           Fine  pearls 859,000 

Melted  gold 7,800,000           Dividive 680,000 

Greda  gold 1,300,000           Frozen  and  salt  meat .  .  600,000 

Sugar . 2,900,000           Panela 530,000 

Goat-skins 2,800,000          Feather 529,000 

Copper 1,700,000           Tobacco 439,000 

Asphalt 1,420,000          Auriferous  sand 246,000 

Lumber 160,000 


Paraguay — Central  and  Tropical  Region 
|1  gold  Paraguayo  =  1  dollar) 

Paraguay  is  an  inland  country  without  coastline  the  same 
as  Bolivia,  lying  as  it  does  in  the  heart  of  the  continent. 
The  Tropic  of  Cajjricorn  crosses  it  at  one  and  a  half  degrees 
north  of  a  point  half-way  between  the  northern  and  southern 
boundaries,  near  where  its  historical  capital  city  is  situated 
on  the  Paraguay  river.  This  territory,  lying  between  the 
rivers  Paraguay  and  Parana,  was  the  cradle  of  civilization 
of  the  La  Plata  region,  and  was  also  the  principal  center 
of  the  Guaranies,  who  were  scattered  throughout  the  whole 
continent  as  far  as  the  Orinoco  and  the  Antilles,  as  the 
Caribes  who  inhabited  these  islands  were  slightly  related 
to  the  Guaranies,  from  whom  they  descended. 

Though  Paraguay  is  an  inland  country,  it  has  communica- 
tion with  the  whole  world  through  the  rivers  Paraguay, 
Parand  and  La  Plata.  There  are  Argentine  navigation 
lines  which  have  service  between  Buenos  Aires  and  Asun- 
cion under  regular  schedule.  There  is  also  a  Brazilian  line 
with  service  between  the  same  points  but  which  goes  farther 
north  beyond  Paraguay,  as  far  as  Matto  Grosso,  which  in 
Portuguese  means  "Large  Forest,"  as  that  part  of  Brazil  is 
covered  with  magnificent  forests  of  trees  which  can  be 
utilized  for  all  kinds  of  work  of  construction. 

The  Brazilian  port  of  Corumb;'\  on  the  Paraguay  is  in  lati- 
tude 19°   south,  that  is,  six  degrees  north  of  the  city  of 


THE  TROPICAL  FKUIT-PRODUCING  REGION  209 

Asuncion.  There  is  another  city  still  farther  north  in 
Brazil,  the  city  of  Cuyaba,  which  is  in  latitude  16°  south,  on 
the  river  of  the  same  name,  which  city  also  communicates 
with  the  La  Plata  and  Brazilian  ports  on  the  Atlantic, 
through  the  same  steamship  line  as  above  indicated.  The 
Paraguay  river  corresponds  in  the  hydrography  of  South 
America  to  the  Mississippi  river  of  the  United  States,  the 
Paraguay  running  parallel  to  the  Parana,  but  navigable  to 
a  greater  extent  than  the  latter,  for  the  reason  that  it  has 
no  cataracts  or  other  obstructions  to  impede  is  navigation 
for  small  vessels. 

The  Parand  has  a  parallel  24°  south,  the  celebrated  catar- 
acts of  the  Guayra,  which  together  with  those  formed  by  the 
Yguazu,  are  the  two  most  magnificent  in  South  America. 
The  Yguazu  is  a  large  tributary  of  the  Parana.  In  regard 
to  navigation  facilities,  the  Paraguay  stands  alone  in  South 
America,  for  it  is  navigable  to  its  very  source,  which  is  on 
the  Sierra  I'arecis,  which  is  the  water-divide  of  the  valleys 
of  the  La  I'lata  and  the  Amazon. 

At  a  short  distance  from  the  port  of  Cuyaba,  15  to  20 
kms.,  is  the  source  of  the  Arinos  river,  which  flows  iuto  the 
Tapajos,  a  tributary  of  the  Amazon.  This  region  has  been 
very  thoroughly  explored  and  described  by  Captain  Bossi  of 
the  Italian  navy,  in  a  book  he  had  published  in  1875,  explain- 
ing how  easy  it  would  be  to  construct  a  canal  across  this 
stretch  of  territory  in  order  to  connect  La  Plata  and  the 
Amazon.  The  Brazilians  transported  in  time  past  cannons 
through  the  Cuyaba  route  to  Pard,  a  port  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Amazon.     (See  map  on  "Communications.") 

The  port  of  Corumbii  in  Brazil  is  opposite  Port  Suarez 
in  a  tributary  of  the  river  Paraguay,  Bolivia,  the  latter 
being  Bolivia's  center  of  communication  with  the  La  Plata. 
This  port  will  be  still  of  greater  importance  when  it  is 
connected  with  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra  (425  miles  by  auto 
road),  a  very  rich  agricultural  section  of  Bolivia,  where 
sugar,  cocoa,  cotton,  coffee  and  other  tropical  products 
abound.     This  is  the  future  great  route  of  Bolivia  for  the 


210       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

traDsportation  of  the  vegetable  produce  of  the  most  fertile  of 
its  regions. 

Its  mineral  products  would  have  a  better  and  more 
economical  outlet  via  the  railroads  to  Antofagasta,  Arica 
and  Mollendo,  being  that  the  minerals  are  exported  to  the 
United  States  and  Europe,  but  the  vegetables  will  have  a 
better  outlet  via  the  La  Plata,  where  a  market  will  be  found 
for  them  in  the  exchange  for  La  Plata  products  and  for 
goods  which  come  from  Europe.  The  construction  of  the 
Central  Argentine  railroad  will  be  much  more  expensive, 
due  to  the  long  distance  which  it  will  traverse  (1,500  miles 
from  La  Paz  to  Buenos  Aires),  as  explained  in  the  chapter 
on  "Communications." 

The  distance  from  Corumba  and  Port  Suarez  to  Plata  is 
covered  in  ten  days,  bj  small  vessels  making  only  eight  miles 
per  hour,  stopping  at  ten  or  more  ports  before  reaching 
Montevideo  and  Buenos  Aires,  but  that  distance  could  be 
covered  in  half  of  the  time,  as  it  is  only  a  stretch  of  15  de- 
grees following  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  (58)  or  900  miles, 
while  via  the  Parana  with  its  many  bends  the  distance  is 
],200  miles, which  could  be  traversed  in  100  hours  by  steamers 
making  12  miles  per  hour,  and  counting  on  50  hours  for  stops, 
it  would  mean  150  hours  or  six  days.  But  taking  the  train 
at  Asuncion  and  traveling  say  at  about  40  kms.  (24  miles) 
per  hour,  the  trip  from  Asuncion,  the  capital  of  Paraguay, 
to  Montevideo  can  be  made  in  24  hours.  By  this  route,  via 
Asuncion,  Posadas,  Salto  and  the  Central  Uruguayan  rail- 
road, the  traveler  can  go  from  Sucre  or  Potosi  in  Bolivia 
to  Montevideo  in  59  hours,  as  shown  in  the  book  "Ferro- 
carriles  Sud-Americanos"  by  the  Uruguayan  engineer  Sr.  J. 
J.  Castro,  which  book  was  very  well  received  by  the  Railroad 
Congress,  which  met  in  Buenos  Aires  in  1895.  (We  refer 
the  reader  to  our  map  on  "Communications,"  the  detailed 
map  of  South  America,  and  to  the  chapter  "The  Future 
Great  Route  of  South  America,"  so  that  he  may  form  an  idea 
as  to  the  river  connections  through  the  continent,  from  the 
La  Plata  to  the  Panama  Canal.) 


THE  TROPICAL  FRUIT  PRODUCING  REGION  211 

What  we  have  herein  stated  proves  that  Paraguay  is  not 
what  the  superficial  reader  might  imagine,  who  looks  at  the 
map  and  sees  a  country  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  world. 

The  portion  of  Paraguay  which  lies  east  of  the  river  which 
gives  this  country  its  name  is  drained  by  the  Paranii,  which 
stream  is  navigable  all  along  the  Brazilian  and  Argentine 
frontier  as  far  as  the  cataracts  or  Salto  del  Guayra. 

Another  portion  of  the  territory  of  Paraguay  lies  be- 
tween the  rivers  Paraguay  and  Pilcomayo,  which  is  part  of 
the  region  called  El  Chaco,  a  vast  plain  which  occupies 
territory  in  Argentina,  Bolivia,  Paraguay  and  Brazil.  There 
is  a  dispute  at  present  between  Bolivia  and  Paraguay  on  the 
question  of  the  El  Chaco  boundaries.  Thus,  the  exact  area 
that  Paraguay  covers  can  not  be  definitely  ascertained,  for 
it  varies  from  253,000  to  445,000  square  kilometers,  the 
latter  figures  with  the  boundary  line  of  Bolivia  at  parallel 
18°  south,  the  former  would  be  the  undisputed  territory. 

The  boundary  between  Paraguay  and  Argentina  was  fixed 
by  President  Hayes  of  the  United  States  of  America,  who 
was  selected  as  arbitrator,  and  he  pointed  out  the  Pilcomayo 
river  as  the  boundary  between  the  two  countries. 

The  Paraguayan  territory  is  an  undulated  surface  with 
hills  of  a  few  hundred  meters  elevation,  and  is  drained  by 
large  streams  which  during  the  rainy  season  overflow  and 
leave  certain  portions  of  its  soil  covered  with  water.  The 
soil  is  very  fertile  and  the  climate,  though  warm,  is  never 
extreme.  The  contrast  between  the  opposing  seasons  of  the 
year  is  little.  It  has  a  heavy  enough  rainfall  for  its 
agricultural  products  and  no  need  of  irrigation  even  for  its 
abundant  supply  of  tropical  products,  such  as  cotton, 
tobacco,  sugar-cane,  coffee,  bananas,  oranges,  cocoa,  timber 
of  aU  kinds,  .specially  hardwoods  among  them,  the  que- 
bracho, nandubay,  algarrobo,  viraro,  lapacho,  etc.,  which  on 
account  of  their  lasting  properties  make  them  very  valuable 
in  the  construction  of  buildings,  implements,  wagons,  and 
fences.  The  hardwood  region  is  in  the  Argentine  and 
Bolivian  Chaco.    Annual  rainfall  1.G46  millimeters. 


212       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

The  most  precious  of  the  trees  found  in  Paraguay  is  the 
"yerba  mate"  (Brazilian  holly,  ilex  paraguayensis),  the 
leaves  of  which  when  roasted  and  pulverized,  or  even  whole, 
make  delicious  tea  substitute.  The  celebrated  French 
naturalist  Bompland  described  the  mate  region  thus :  "The 
geographical  section  of  the  'yerba'  is  marked  in  as  singular 
a  way  as  that  of  the  jjrecious  trees  which  yield  the  quinine 
of  Peru,  and  deserves  mention.  Take  a  ruler  and  place  one 
of  its  edges  on  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande,  a  river  in 
southern  Brazil  which  flows  into  the  Atlantic,  and  the  other 
edge  on  Villa  Rica,  a  city  of  southern  Paraguay;  all  along 
this  line  and  to  the  territory  northeast  of  same  for  a  con- 
siderable distance  may  be  found  large  fields  of  'yerba'  grow- 
ing in  its  natural  state,  while  on  the  soil  lying  southeast  of 
this  line,  whether  at  the  foot  of  or  within  the  mountains, 
only  a  few  widely  scattered  plants  are  found."  The  infusion 
of  "yerba  mate"  has  thein  and  caffein  in  smaller  quantities 
than  tea  and  cofifee,  has  stimulating  properties,  quenches 
thirst  and  satisfies  hunger  as  does  the  coca  of  Bolivia.  Cases 
are  cited  where  soldiers  have  lived  for  two  and  three  days 
without  any  food  and  drinking  "mate"  only.  It  is  more  satis- 
fying in  summer,  when  it  not  only  quenches  thirst  but  makes 
a  cool  and  refreshing  beverage. 

Yet,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  Paraguay  is  one  of  the 
most  fertile  countries  of  South  America,  the  quantity  of  its 
products  is  very  small,  as  is  the  case  also  with  its  exports,  due 
principally  to  the  scarcity  of  men,  as  the  man  power  of  Para- 
guay was  exhausted  during  the  prolonged  war  which  the 
tyrant  Lopez  fought  against  Brazil,  Argentina  and  Uruguay, 
when  160,000  men  were  killed  in  battle  and  the  rest  were 
subsequently  decimated  by  various  forms  of  disease — 
cholera  morbus,  typhus  and  small-pox. 

Principal  products  exported :  Tobacco,  timber,  yerba  mate, 
oranges  and  bananas.  Live  bovines,  salt  meat  and  hides 
are  also  exported. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

FUTURE  SOUTH  AMERICA 

Oration  Delivered  by  the  Celebrated  -Uruguayan  Writer 

Jose  Enrique  Rodo  before  the  Chilean  Congress 

AT  THE  Centennial  Anniversary  of  the 

Independence  of  Chile 

I  should  here  be  the  voice  of  a  people.  I  should  be 
capable  to  iustill  it  and  maiutain  it  in  my  words  in  order  to 
transmit  to  you  the  intensity  of  emotion  with  which  my 
people  share  in  the  enthusiasm  of  this  Centennial,  for  that 
which  this  Centennial  has  that  is  American  and  for  what 
it  has  that  is  Chilean. 

For  that  which  it  has  that  is  American,  permit  me  to 
grant  preeminence  to  this  characteristic  over  the  other. 
Higher  than  the  Centennial  of  Chile,  than  that  of  Argentina, 
than  that  of  Mexico,  do  I  feel  and  perceive  the  Centennial 
of  Spanish  America.  In  spirit  and  in  facts  of  history  there 
is  only  one  Spanish-American  Centennial,  for  in  spirit  and 
in  facts  of  history  there  was  only  one  Spanish-American 
revolution ;  and  the  unity  of  this  revolution  consisted  not 
alone  in  harmonious  blending  of  men  and  events  which  con- 
tributed to  its  realization  and  its  dissemination  over  a  whole 
continent,  but  chiefly  in  that  the  historic  destiny  of  that 
revolution  was  not  to  enlighten  an  inorganic  ensemble  of 
nations  to  remain  separated  by  narrow  sentiments  of  country 
and  nationality,  but  to  spread  over  the  face  of  the  earth  a 
perennial  harmony  of  peoples  united  by  commonness  of 
origin,  of  tradition,  of  language,  of  customs  and  of  institu- 
tions, by  geographical  contiguity  and  by  all  things  that  can 
possibly  serve  as  a  foundation  for  the  unity  of  a  collective 
conscience. 

213 


214       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

These  are,  therefore,  in  America,  the  days  of  a  great  Cen- 
tennial which  single  and  complex  will  lengthen  into  two 
decennials,  evoking  day  by  day  in  each  American  people,  the 
reminders  of  the  independence  and  of  the  organization,  that 
variety  of  reminders  which  remains  forever,  as  the  most 
exalted  and  the  most  sacred  in  the  history  of  nations. 

It  could  be  said  that  an  imposing  assembly,  which  has 
been  gathering  since  the  long  ago,  watches  us  and  listens — 
the  assembly  composed  of  those  generations  which  created 
for  an  everlasting  future  a  liberated  America.  So,  on  this 
unique  occasion,  the  generations  living  today  can  make  be- 
fore this  heroic  restored  past,  two  assertions  which  will 
satisfy  and  comfort  them.  As  testimonials  to  the  first  of 
these — the  unanimity  and  solemnity  of  this  international 
adhesion  which  the  American  Centennial  incited  in  Argen- 
tina yesterday  and  which  in  Chile  it  incites  today,  and  which 
assertion  is  to  the  effect  that  this,  the  so-much-discussed,  so- 
much-opposed,  so-much-defiled  Spanish  America,  by  out- 
sider's ignorance  and  pride  and  even  by  the  scepticism  of  its 
own  children,  now  begins  to  live  before  the  conscience  of 
the  universe,  and  is  beginning  now  to  attract  the  attention 
and  the  interest  of  the  world,  not  for  its  resplendence  and 
spontaneity  of  culture  as  yet,  not  for  its  political  influence 
in  the  society  of  nations,  but  it  has  by  the  virtuality  and 
reality  of  its  wealth,  by  the  force  and  energy  displayed  in  its 
material  development,  which  although  it  may  not  constitute 
a  definite  proof  of  civilization,  at  least  furnishes  a  solid 
foundation  as  the  rustic  and  strong  origin  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  peoples  who  some  day  will  be  giants  in  spirit. 

For  a  long  time  after  our  emancipation  the  world  failed 
to  recognize  us,  or  knowing  us  slightly  and  disdainfully 
refusing  to  know  us  better,  it  doubted  us.  Perhaps,  some- 
times, embittered  by  the  apparent  unfruitfulness  of  innu- 
merable efforts  of  anguish,  obscure  sacrifices,  we  doubted  our- 
selves, and  this  cruel  doubt  did  not  forgive-^at  the  Geth- 
semane  of  Santa  Marta — the  lacerated  soul  of  the  Liberator. 
But  after  all,  we  have  conquered  doubt,  and  today  our  hopes 


FUTURE  SOUTH  AMERICA  215 

for  the  immediate  future  are  lofty  and  firm  and  the  faith 
of  the  world  begins  to  reward  and  confirm  them.  We  were 
until  yesterday  only  a  little  more  than  a  geographical  name 
and  started  to  become  a  power ;  we  were  a  rash  promise,  and 
started  to  become  a  reality. 

Another  encouraging  assertion  is  permitted  by  the  man- 
ner in  which  this  first  century  ends ;  and  it  is,  that  the  Span- 
ish-American nations  begin  to  show  a  resolute  and  clear 
conscience  in  the  unity  of  their  fate,  in  the  inviolable  soli- 
darity which  takes  root  in  what  is  fundamental  of  their  past 
and  lasting  with  the  extent  of  their  infinite  future.  Auguste 
Comte  expressed  his  profound  faith  in  the  future  conscience 
of  the  solidarity  of  humanity,  saying  that  humanity  as  a 
collective  being  does  not  exist  as  yet,  but  that  it  will  some 
day.  Let  us  suppose  that  America,  our  America,  that  of  our 
family,  begins  to  exist  as  a  collective  being  conscious  of  its 
identity.  The  assembling  of  the  various  Congresses,  the 
building  of  railways  connecting  one  country  with  another, 
the  settlement  of  international  disputes,  the  closer  com- 
munion of  intellectual  ties,  all  tend  to  show  that  a  well- 
developed  American  conscience  exists. 

I  have  always  believed  that  in  our  America  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  speak  of  many  distinct  countries,  but  of  a  country 
single  and  great.  I  have  always  believed  that  the  idea  of 
country  is  lofty,  that  it  is  the  expression  of  what  is  most 
ennobling  in  man's  sensibility — love  of  the  soil,  the  poetry 
of  memories,  the  ecstasy  of  glory  and  the  hope  of  eternal  life. 
In  America  more  than  anywhere  else  is  there  room  without 
denaturalizing  the  idea,  to  magnify  it,  to  diffuse  it,  to  cleanse 
it  of  what  is  narrow  and  negative,  and  to  elevate  it  for  the 
natural  virtue  of  what  it  holds  that  is  positive  and  prolific. 
It  is  proper  to  build  above  the  native  country  the  American 
country,  and  to  hasten  the  day  when  the  children  of  today 
— the  men  of  the  future — on  being  asked  the  name  of  their 
country,  they  will  not  reply  with  the  name  of  Brazil,  nor 
the  name  of  Chile,  nor  that  of  Mexico  because  they  answer 
with  the  name  of  America. 


216       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

Any  international  American  politics  not  guided  toward 
this  end  and  not  adjusted  to  the  preparation  of  this  harmony 
will  be  void  and  misguided  politics. 

I  will  repeat  here  what  I  had  occasion  to  say  recently: 
When  America  first  joined  the  ranks  of  history,  it  was  not 
only  a  new  geographical  entity  that  appeared  on  the  face 
of  the  globe.  We  must  realize  that  with  America  came  a 
new  spirit,  a  new  ideal — the  spirit  and  the  ideal  of  the  fu- 
ture. Europe,  the  master  of  civilization,  which  has  in- 
structed us  and  nursed  us  in  her  ideas  of  liberty  and  justice, 
fruit  of  her  experience  and  her  genius,  has  the  right  to  expect 
that,  once  relieved  of  the  wearisome  load  of  tradition,  we 
will  do  something  more  besides  repeating  them.  She  has 
the  right  to  expect  that  we  incorporate  them  in  reality,  or 
at  least,  that  we  strive  energetically  to  live  up  to  them.  If 
there  were  no  originality  in  our  own  civilization  and  if  we 
could  add  nothing  in  the  actual  course  of  life  to  what  is 
imitated  and  inherited,  what  would  the  revolution  of  1810 
mean,  in  a  definite  way,  but  a  superficial  convulsion,  un- 
worthy of  such  praise?  What  else  could  it  mean  but  that 
we  would  continue  to  be  colonies  in  spirit  after  ceasing  to 
be  colonies  in  political  reality? 

Those  who  considered  it  an  unrealizable  miracle  for  peo- 
ples to  interchange  relations  through  other  means  than  those 
of  international  traditions,  founded  on  force  and  deceit,  and 
that  America  should  be  the  place  for  its  accomplishment, 
forget  that  a  greater  miracle  is  being  realized  and  is  tangi- 
ble— the  materialization  of  this  Centennial. 

If  little  more  than  a  century  ago,  or  in  other  words,  if 
previous  to  the  time  of  the  North  American  independence 
and  the  French  Revolution  it  had  been  affirmed  that 
Democracy  and  the  Republic  as  permanent  forms  of  social 
and  political  organizations  would  not  only  become  a  realiza- 
tion with  great  and  powerful  nations,  but  that  they  would 
extend  through  the  whole  length  and  breadth  of  a  continent 
and  that  this  prodigy  would  be  the  offspring  of  the  obscure 
European  colonies  then  submerged  in  the  soporiferous  sleep 


FUTURE  SOUTH  AMERICA  217 

of  infancy,  the  assertion  would  have  appeared  as  the  most 
laughable  paradox. 

So,  when  the  virtuality  of  ideas  and  the  energy  of  young 
and  vigorous  nations  have  been  efficient  enough  to  transform 
obscure  colonies  into  self-possessed  nations,  and  to  implant 
from  one  to  the  other  extremity  of  a  continent  the  advanced 
forms  of  organization  and  of  government  which  a  little  more 
than  a  century  ago  seemed  to  man's  common  sense  mere 
empty  Utopias,  why  doubt  that  that  virtuality  of  ideas  and 
that  same  energy  of  young  and  vigorous  nations  will  some 
day,  internationally,  accomplish  in  America  that  which  the 
sceptics  of  today  hold  in  dreams  and  chimeras  in  opposition 
to  the  fatal  laws  of  history:  An  exaltation  of  the  idea  of 
country;  a  future  of  peace  and  love  among  nations;  inter- 
national harmony  founded  on  the  accord  of  the  interests 
of  all  by  the  loyal  respect  of  the  rights  of  each  separate 
nation? 


218       SOUTH  AMERICA  PAST  AND  PRESENT 


STATISTICS 

TRADE  PER  INHABITANT 

Yeae  1911 — (In  Dollars) 

Belgium $200  Germany 

Great  Britain 174  United  States .  .  . 

Cuba 110  Brazil 

Argentine 98  Italy 

France 84  Austria-Hungary . 

Uruguay 80  Spain 

Chile 71 


$62 
38 
36 
29 
20 
18 


SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE 

Yeab  1915 — (Million  Dollars) 

Importation,  SS5  Millions.     Exportation,  1,176  Millions, 

Importation   Exportation 

Argentina 220  541 

BrazU 146  257 

Chile 55  117 

Uruguay 36  76 

Colombia 18  29 

Peru 15  68 

Venezuela 13  23 

Ecuador 8  15 

Paraguay 2  8 


SOUTH  AMERICA— EXPORTATION 

1913-1916  Compared 

(Union  Pan-American  Review) 


Total 

United  States. 
Great  Britain. 

Germany 

France 


1913 
Million 
Dollars 
1,547 
481 
324 
193 
128 


Total 

761 

403 

173 

112 

47 

83 

36 

23 

10 


1916 

Million 

Dollars 

1,875 

850 

396 


SOUTH  AMERICA— IMPORTATION 

1913-1916  Compared     1913 

Million 

Dollars 

1,326 

328 

314 

219 

110 


Total 

United  States 24% 

Great  Britain 23% 

Germany 16% 

France 8% 


51% 

18% 

■4% 


156 


1916 

Million 

DoUara 

1,037 

530 

190 

■47 


CURRENCY.  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 
Linear  or  Long  Measure 
1  statute  mile  =  1,760  yards  =  5,280  feet  =  5280  x  0.3048  meter  =  1,609  meters  244 
millimeters  =  1609.244  meters. 

1  nautical  mile  ■=  6,085  feet  =  1,855  meters.      1  sea  mile  >=  1,885  meters. 

1  fathom  =  6  feet  =  1.828  meters.     1  yard  =  3  feet  =  0.914  meter.     1  meter  =  3.280  feet. 

1  acre  =  4,840  square  yards.  Square  Measure 

1  hectare  ■=  2.471  acres.     100  hectares  =  247.1  acres  =  1  square  kilometer. 
1  square  mile  =  258.9666  hectares  =  2  square  kilometers  5  896  meters  =  2.5896  square 
kilometers. 


1  pound  =  0  kilogram  450  gram.  Weight 

Thermometeh 
0  degree  centigrade  =  32  Fahrenheit.         180  degrees  Fahrenheit  ■■ 

Monet  (at  par)  (Gold) 
Uruguay — SI  =  1-035  American  =  SI. 072  Argentine  (Gold). 
ChiU — $1  =  0.222  dollar.     Bolivia — Boliviano  «=  2.06  francs. 
Peru — 5  soles  =  1  English  pound. 
Brazil — Milreis  gold  =  2.75  francs. 
Ecuador — 1  Sucre  =  $0.50.    Colombia — $1  =  1  dollar. 
Venezuela — 1  boUvar  =  1  franc.    Paraguay — $1  =  1  dollar. 


100  centigrade. 


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